{"id":5212,"date":"2025-12-11T01:39:10","date_gmt":"2025-12-11T01:39:10","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/?post_type=blog_content&p=5212"},"modified":"2025-12-11T02:12:10","modified_gmt":"2025-12-11T02:12:10","slug":"dikkatin-ne-oldugunu-kimse-bilmiyor-bernhard-hommel-%c2%b7-craig-s-chapman-%c2%b7-paul-cisek-%c2%b7-heather-f-neyedli-%c2%b7-joo-hyun-song-%c2%b7-timothy-n-welsh","status":"publish","type":"blog_content","link":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/en\/blog_content\/dikkatin-ne-oldugunu-kimse-bilmiyor-bernhard-hommel-%c2%b7-craig-s-chapman-%c2%b7-paul-cisek-%c2%b7-heather-f-neyedli-%c2%b7-joo-hyun-song-%c2%b7-timothy-n-welsh\/","title":{"rendered":"Dikkatin Ne Oldu\u011funu Kimse Bilmiyor – Bernhard Hommel \u00b7 Craig S. Chapman \u00b7 Paul Cisek \u00b7 Heather F. Neyedli \u00b7 Joo-Hyun Song \u00b7 Timothy N. Welsh"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u00d6zg\u00fcn Ad\u0131: Hommel, B., Chapman, C. S., Cisek, P., Neyedli, H. F., Song, J. H., & Welsh, T. N. (2019). No one knows what attention is.\u00a0Attention, perception & psychophysics<\/em>,\u00a081<\/em>(7), 2288\u20132303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13414-019-01846-w<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u00d6zet<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Bu makalede, \u201cdikkat\u201din (attention) tekil bir yap\u0131 (unitary construct) ve\/veya sinirsel bir sistem olarak ele al\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131n yararl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 sorguluyoruz. Dikkat asl\u0131nda tek bir \u015fekilde tan\u0131mlanmaktan ziyade pek \u00e7ok anlam\u0131 bar\u0131nd\u0131rmaktad\u0131r.  Bu kavram\u0131n hem a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 gereken olgular b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc (explanandum) hem de bu olgular\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayan s\u00fcre\u00e7ler b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc (explanans) i\u00e7in kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurguluyoruz. S\u00f6z konusu arg\u00fcmanlar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 \u00f6rneklendirmek amac\u0131yla, oda\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 g\u00f6rsel se\u00e7ici dikkat (visual selective attention) olgusuna y\u00f6neltiyoruz. Evrim s\u00fcrecinde, \u00e7ok kanall\u0131 karma\u015f\u0131k bir duyu-motor (sensorimotor) sistemin do\u011fal bir tasar\u0131m \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak se\u00e7icili\u011fin (selectivity) ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131; dikkatin de bu yap\u0131n\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 yan \u00fcr\u00fcnlerden biri oldu\u011funu savunuyoruz.<\/strong> Dikkate y\u00f6nelik geleneksel analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m yerine, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta dikkate \u00f6zg\u00fc olmayan ama se\u00e7icilik s\u00fcre\u00e7lerini a\u00e7\u0131klayabilen mekanizmalardan yola \u00e7\u0131kan b\u00fct\u00fcnc\u00fcl bir yakla\u015f\u0131m \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fcyoruz.<\/strong> Sonu\u00e7 olarak, bilimsel ilerleme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan en yararl\u0131 ad\u0131m\u0131n, \u201cdikkat\u201d terimini belirli bir i\u015flevsel ya da sinirsel sistemin etiketi olarak kullanmaktan vazge\u00e7mek oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyoruz.<\/strong> Bunun yerine davran\u0131\u015fsal a\u00e7\u0131dan anlaml\u0131 se\u00e7im s\u00fcre\u00e7lerine ve bunlar\u0131 hayata ge\u00e7iren \u00e7ok say\u0131daki sisteme odaklanmay\u0131 \u00f6neriyoruz.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Anahtar Kelimeler<\/strong>: Dikkat (Attention) \u00b7 Motor kontrol \u00b7 Se\u00e7im (Selection) \u00b7 Duyu-motor (Sensorimotor) \u00b7 Karar verme (Decision making) \u00b7 Filogenetik (Phylogenetic) \u00b7 Niyet (Intention) \u00b7 Evrim (Evolution) \u00b7 Parietal korteks \u00b7 Superior kollikulus<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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1. Giri<\/strong>\u015f<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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\u201cHerkes dikkatin ne oldu\u011funu bilir\u201d (James, 1890) ifadesi, William James\u2019in en bilinen s\u00f6zlerindendir ve \u015f\u00fcphesiz insan dikkatine dair en \u00fcnl\u00fc ifadelerden biri olarak kabul edilir[1]<\/a>. Ancak biz, bu ifadenin bili\u015fsel ara\u015ft\u0131rmalarda a\u015f\u0131r\u0131ya ka\u00e7arak kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n ve pop\u00fclerle\u015fmesinin bilimsel ilerleme a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan olumsuz etkileri oldu\u011funu; asl\u0131nda kimsenin dikkatin ne oldu\u011funu ger\u00e7ekten bilmedi\u011fini savunmaktay\u0131z.<\/strong> \u00d6zellikle, dikkat kavram\u0131n\u0131n bili\u015fsel bilimlerde s\u0131k\u00e7a yanl\u0131\u015f anla\u015f\u0131lan ve yan\u0131lt\u0131c\u0131 bir \u015fekilde kullan\u0131lan terimlerden biri oldu\u011funu ileri s\u00fcrmekteyiz.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu makalede \u015fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc savunuyoruz: Dikkat teriminin kullan\u0131m\u0131 b\u0131rak\u0131lmal\u0131 ve ilgili alandaki ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, belli bir g\u00f6reve y\u00f6nelik performans\u0131 sa\u011flayan s\u00fcre\u00e7 ve mekanizma gruplar\u0131na odaklanarak yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131r\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> Benzer g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler daha \u00f6nce de \u00f6nerilmi\u015f ve tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (bkz. Anderson, 2011; Di Lollo, 2018; Hommel & Colzato, 2015; Krauzlis, Bollimunta, Arcizet, & Wang, 2014; Mole, 2011). \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmam\u0131z, insan\u0131n duyu-motor (sensorimotor) bilgi i\u015fleme sistemlerinin birbiriyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 ve b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fik (integrative) yap\u0131s\u0131na yeni bir odak getirerek \u00f6nceki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri hem do\u011frulamakta hem de geli\u015ftirmektedir.<\/strong> Duyu-bili\u015fsel-motor s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin (sensori-cognitive-motor processes) b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirilmesine yap\u0131lan bu vurgu, bili\u015fi (cognition) anlama konusunda geli\u015ftirilen sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131mlardan (Hommel & Colzato, 2015) ve davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 anlamada filogenetik bir bilimsel perspektiften (Cisek, 2019) esinlenmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu makalede, \u00f6ncelikle dikkat kavram\u0131n\u0131n bug\u00fcne kadar nas\u0131l kavramsalla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 konusundaki temel sorunlar\u0131 tart\u0131\u015f\u0131yor ve \u00f6zetliyoruz. Amac\u0131m\u0131z, bili\u015fsel olgular\u0131 incelerken sentetik bir yakla\u015f\u0131m benimsemektir.<\/strong> Bu yakla\u015f\u0131ma g\u00f6re odak, dikkat kavram\u0131 alt\u0131nda incelenmi\u015f s\u00fcre\u00e7ler ile mekanizmalar\u0131n alt k\u00fcmelerine y\u00f6neliktir. Yani dikkati tek bir b\u00fct\u00fcnsel kavram olarak ele almak yerine, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7leri ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 anlamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmakt\u0131r.<\/strong> Durum analizimizi desteklemek amac\u0131yla iki \u00f6rnek sunuyoruz. \u0130lkinde, dikkat ile niyet (intention) aras\u0131ndaki kavramsal ayr\u0131m\u0131 ele al\u0131yor ve mevcut tart\u0131\u015fman\u0131n verileri yeterince a\u00e7\u0131klayamad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steriyoruz. \u0130kinci \u00f6rnekte ise se\u00e7im (selection) ve \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015fi (reward history) ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131n\u0131 inceleyerek,<\/strong> geleneksel analitik yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n bu sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zmede yetersiz kald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koyuyoruz.<\/strong> Analitik yakla\u015f\u0131ma alternatif olarak, insan beyninin filogenetik evrimini k\u0131saca g\u00f6zden ge\u00e7iriyor<\/strong> (daha ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 inceleme i\u00e7in bkz. Cisek, 2019) ve<\/strong> se\u00e7ici dikkatin (selective attention), hayvanlar\u0131n do\u011fal ortamda kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 zorluklar\u0131n bir sonucu olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steriyoruz.<\/strong> Son olarak, farkl\u0131 ampirik g\u00f6zlemleri tek bir \u201cdikkat\u201d kavram\u0131 alt\u0131nda toplamaya ve hepsini tek bir b\u00fct\u00fcnsel sistem \u00fczerinden a\u00e7\u0131klamaya y\u00f6nelik<\/strong> geleneksel analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z oldu\u011fu sonucuna var\u0131yoruz.<\/strong> Bunun yerine,<\/strong> ekolojik a\u00e7\u0131dan anlaml\u0131 mekanizma ve s\u00fcre\u00e7lerden ba\u015flayan ve bunlara odaklanan, ard\u0131ndan m\u00fcmk\u00fcn oldu\u011funca \u00e7ok say\u0131da olguyu (dikkate y\u00f6nelik olan veya olmayan) a\u00e7\u0131klamay\u0131 hedefleyen daha sentetik bir yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n benimsenmesi gerekti\u011fini savunuyoruz.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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2. Dikkat Kavram\u0131 (The Concept of Attention)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Biz, dikkat kavram\u0131 ilgili sorunlar\u0131 g\u00fcndeme getiren ilk ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar de\u011filiz. Bir\u00e7ok yazar, dikkatin nesnele\u015ftirilme (reification) e\u011filiminin, ampirik sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131nda tekrarlayan ve dolayl\u0131 bir mant\u0131k \u00fcretti\u011fini vurgulam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r <\/strong>(Anderson, 2011; Di Lollo, 2018). Bir di\u011fer yayg\u0131n ele\u015ftiri ise, genellikle dikkat olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan olgular\u0131n alt\u0131nda birden fazla s\u00fcrecin yatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcndedir<\/strong> (Di Lollo, 2018; Hommel & Colzato, 2015). Mole (2011), James\u2019in ifadesinin, dikkatin esas i\u015flevinin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme, alg\u0131lama veya eylemde mi olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bir d\u00f6nemde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurgular. James\u2019in \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f\u0131 F.H. Bradley, dikkat kavram\u0131na y\u00f6nelik ilk ele\u015ftirilerden birini yapm\u0131\u015f ve makalesine \u201cDikkatin Kendine \u00d6zg\u00fc Bir Faaliyeti Var M\u0131d\u0131r? (\u201cIs There Any Special Activity of Attention?\u201d)\u201d ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vermi\u015ftir. K\u0131saca Bradley\u2019nin g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc,<\/strong> dikkat olarak etiketlenen \u00e7ok say\u0131da olgu \u00f6rne\u011finin mevcut oldu\u011fu, ancak bu olgular\u0131n arkas\u0131ndaki s\u00fcre\u00e7lere yeterince \u00f6nem verilmedi\u011fi y\u00f6n\u00fcndeydi<\/strong> (Bradley, 1886).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Aradan 130 y\u0131l\u0131 a\u015fk\u0131n bir s\u00fcre ge\u00e7mesine ra\u011fmen,<\/strong> dikkatin rol\u00fcn\u00fc, dikkat kavram\u0131n\u0131n kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 ve dikkatin ne oldu\u011funu sorgulama ihtiyac\u0131 devam etmekte ve \u00f6nem kazanarak artmaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Busemeyer, Gluth, Rieskamp, & Turner, 2019; Gottlieb, 2012). Biz de bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri yeniden teyit ediyor ve ayr\u0131ca,<\/strong> dikkati ayr\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcmlere ay\u0131r\u0131p ard\u0131ndan tek bir dikkat sistemi (attentional system) aray\u0131\u015f\u0131na girmeyi, insan davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n kapsaml\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 engelleyen bir yakla\u015f\u0131m olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz.<\/strong> \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu yakla\u015f\u0131m, duyusal, bili\u015fsel ve eylemsel s\u00fcre\u00e7ler aras\u0131ndaki b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fik, paralel ve kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ili\u015fkileri g\u00f6rmezden gelmektedir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Temel g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fc ve savlar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 detayland\u0131rmadan \u00f6nce \u015funu belirtmek istiyoruz:<\/strong> Ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z kuramsal sorunlar \u00f6zellikle dikkat kavram\u0131na y\u00f6neliktir, ancak yaln\u0131zca bu alanla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalmamaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (Hommel, 2019a). Nitekim, ileride sunaca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z arg\u00fcmanlara olduk\u00e7a benzer bi\u00e7imde bellek kavram\u0131 da ele\u015ftirel sorgulamaya tabi tutulmu\u015ftur. \u0130nsan belle\u011fi alan\u0131ndaki uzun soluklu ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, belle\u011fin performans boyutlar\u0131n\u0131 ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 temsil etti\u011fi varsay\u0131lan \u00e7ok say\u0131da bellek sistemi ortaya koymu\u015ftur. Bu sistemler kendi varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayabilir gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmekle birlikte altta yatan s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin mekanistik olarak anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131na sa\u011flad\u0131klar\u0131 katk\u0131 olduk\u00e7a s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r <\/strong>(Bechtel, 2008). G\u00fcncel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, farkl\u0131 bellek t\u00fcrlerinin birbirinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z ve \u00f6zelle\u015fmi\u015f sistemlerin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olmayabilece\u011fini; bunun yerine normal i\u015fleyi\u015fteki bili\u015fsel sistemlerin farkl\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131<\/strong> (Buckner & Schacter, 2004) ve insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n evrimsel s\u00fcrecinin de\u011fi\u015fik a\u015famalar\u0131nda geli\u015fti\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrmektedir<\/strong> (Murray, Wise, & Graham, 2017). Benzer g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler duygu (emotion) kavram\u0131 i\u00e7in de dile getirilmi\u015f (Barrett, 2017; Hommel, 2019b) ve bili\u015f de dahil olmak \u00fczere di\u011fer kavramlara da uyarlanabilmektedir (Cisek, 2019). Dikkat \u00fczerine yo\u011funla\u015fmam\u0131z\u0131n sebebi, en az\u0131ndan baz\u0131 ilgili olgular\u0131n duyusal, motor ve bili\u015fsel etkile\u015fimler a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan daha iyi anla\u015f\u0131labilece\u011fi kan\u0131s\u0131nda olmam\u0131zd\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

“G\u00fcncel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, farkl\u0131 bellek t\u00fcrlerinin birbirinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z ve \u00f6zelle\u015fmi\u015f sistemlerin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olmayabilece\u011fini; bunun yerine normal i\u015fleyi\u015fteki bili\u015fsel sistemlerin farkl\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 (Buckner & Schacter, 2004) ve insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n evrimsel s\u00fcrecinin de\u011fi\u015fik a\u015famalar\u0131nda geli\u015fti\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrmektedir (Murray, Wise, & Graham, 2017).”<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u0130nsan dikkati \u00fczerine kuramsal yakla\u015f\u0131mlar en az \u00fc\u00e7 temel sorunla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmaktad\u0131r. Birincisi, dikkat kavram\u0131, dikkat olarak adland\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z t\u00fcm s\u00fcre\u00e7lere katk\u0131da bulunan<\/strong> tek ve tutarl\u0131 bir bili\u015fsel ya da sinirsel i\u015flem dizisinin var oldu\u011fu yan\u0131lsamas\u0131n\u0131 yaratabilmektedir<\/strong>– ki bu durum analiz d\u00fczeyine g\u00f6re de\u011fi\u015fkenlik g\u00f6stermektedir (\u00f6rn. Kahneman, 1973). \u0130kincisi, dikkat kavram\u0131 hem psikolojinin a\u00e7\u0131klamakla sorumlu oldu\u011fu kritik bir a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 gereken olgu (explanandum) hem de bu a\u00e7\u0131klamay\u0131 sa\u011flamas\u0131 beklenen a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 unsur (explanans) olarak yanl\u0131\u015f yorumlanabilmektedir. Bu da a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 unsurun sahte a\u00e7\u0131klama<\/strong> (pseudo-explanation) karakteri kazanmas\u0131na neden olmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> \u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fc ise dikkat kavram\u0131n\u0131n kararlar (decisions), niyetler (intentions), motivasyon (motivations), duygular (emotions), planlama (planning) ve hayata ge\u00e7irme (execution) gibi di\u011fer s\u00fcre\u00e7lerden<\/strong> ayr\u0131lan \u00f6zg\u00fcn bir bili\u015fsel veya sinirsel i\u015flem grubunu (cognitive or neural operations) temsil etti\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir.<\/strong> Sonraki b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerde bu \u00fc\u00e7 noktan\u0131n detayl\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 yaparken g\u00f6rece\u011fimiz gibi, bu varsay\u0131mlar\u0131n hepsi yanl\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130lk olarak, ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar\u0131n tarihsel olarak dikkat kavram\u0131n\u0131 kullan\u0131rken a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 olgular\u0131n neler oldu\u011funu ele alal\u0131m. Yayg\u0131n ve klasik g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flere g\u00f6re dikkat, bilgi i\u015fleme (process), belle\u011fe kaydetme (store) ve hat\u0131rlama (retrieve information) kapasitemizi en verimli bi\u00e7imde kullanmam\u0131z\u0131 sa\u011flayan bili\u015fsel ve sinirsel mekanizmalar\u0131n bir b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. Bununla birlikte, giri\u015f kitaplar\u0131na (\u00f6rn. Eysenck & Keane, 2000) ve \u00e7evrimi\u00e7i kaynaklara bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, dikkatin \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 yetilerle ili\u015fkilendirildi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir: d\u0131\u015f olaylar\u0131 daha derinlemesine i\u00e7sel i\u015flemden ge\u00e7irmek amac\u0131yla se\u00e7me becerisi (odaklanm\u0131\u015f dikkat \/ focused attention); yan\u0131lt\u0131c\u0131 ve\/veya alakas\u0131z bilgileri g\u00f6rmezden gelme (se\u00e7ici dikkat \/ selective attention); alakas\u0131z bilgileri i\u015fleme (istemsiz dikkat \/ involuntary attention); tek bir olaya ait bilgilerin ayn\u0131 ya da farkl\u0131 duyusal modaliteler aras\u0131nda se\u00e7ici olarak b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirilmesi (\u00f6zellik entegrasyonu \/ feature integration); belirli bir konumdaki olaylar\u0131n i\u015flenmesine \u00f6ncelik verilmesi (mek\u00e2nsal dikkat \/ spatial attention); hedef bir olay\u0131 sistematik olarak arama (g\u00f6rsel arama \/ visual search); ayn\u0131 anda birden \u00e7ok i\u015f yapma (b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f dikkat \/ divided attention); g\u00f6z hareketlerinin mek\u00e2nsal parametrelerini kontrol etme (eyleme y\u00f6nelik se\u00e7ici dikkat \/ selective attention for action); bir hedefe di\u011ferlerinden daha \u00e7ok \u00f6ncelik verme (hedef-merkezli dikkat \/ goal-centered attention); bir nesneye, bellek unsuruna veya bilin\u00e7li temsile di\u011ferlerine k\u0131yasla \u00f6ncelik verme (nesne-merkezli dikkat \/ object-centered attention); bilgiyi daha sonra kullan\u0131lmak \u00fczere peki\u015ftirme ve olas\u0131 bir olaya haz\u0131rl\u0131k olarak belli bir s\u00fcre yo\u011funla\u015fma (s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclen dikkat \/ sustained attention). \u0130lk bak\u0131\u015fta, t\u00fcm bu olgular\u0131n ayn\u0131 i\u015flevsel\/sinirsel mekanizma grubu taraf\u0131ndan y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc varsaymak pek olas\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnmemektedir<\/strong> (Allport, 1993). Davran\u0131\u015fsal ve sinirsel alanlarda edinilen bulgular\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131 da<\/strong> bu alt i\u015flevlerin \u00e7o\u011funun birbirinden ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilir oldu\u011funu do\u011frulamaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Fan, McCandliss, Sommer, Raz & Posner, 2002). Buna paralel olarak,<\/strong> bug\u00fcne dek \u201cdikkat\u201d ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 alt\u0131nda toplanan bu farkl\u0131 olgular\u0131n hepsini tutarl\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde a\u00e7\u0131klayabilecek kapsaml\u0131 bir kuram hen\u00fcz geli\u015ftirilmemi\u015ftir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130kinci olarak, dikkat kavram\u0131 s\u0131kl\u0131kla<\/strong> bili\u015fsel i\u015flemlemenin<\/strong> (cognitive processing) hem sorununu hem de \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc kapsamak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Di\u011fer bir ifadeyle hem a\u00e7\u0131klanmak istenen olguyu hem de bu olguyu a\u00e7\u0131klamak \u00fczere \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclen mekanizmay\u0131 tan\u0131mlar. \u00d6rne\u011fin bu kavram, bir olay\u0131n temsiline (representation) di\u011fer olaylar\u0131n temsillerine k\u0131yasla daha fazla a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k kazand\u0131rarak karar verme ve eylem \u00fczerinde daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir etki yaratmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7an istemli ve istemsiz fakt\u00f6rlerin sonu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 ifade etmek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r (\u00f6rn. Yantis, 1998). Ancak ayn\u0131 kavram,<\/strong> bu t\u00fcr temsil farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 y\u00f6nlendirmesinden do\u011fan sonu\u00e7larla ba\u015fa \u00e7\u0131kmay\u0131 sa\u011flayan sistem, mekanizma veya yetiyi tan\u0131mlamak i\u00e7in de kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Broadbent, 1958). Benzer \u015fekilde, baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar<\/strong> dikkati a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 gereken bili\u015fsel darbo\u011faz<\/strong> (the cognitive bottleneck),<\/strong> yani kritik kapasite s\u0131n\u0131rlamas\u0131 olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcrken<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Pashler & Johnston, 1998), di\u011ferleri dikkati bu darbo\u011fazlarla ba\u015f etmeyi sa\u011flayan bili\u015fsel ara\u00e7 olarak de\u011ferlendirmektedir<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Bundesen, 1990). Bu kavramsal belirsizlikler, a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 gereken as\u0131l sorunun ne oldu\u011funu mu\u011flakla\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: S\u00f6z konusu olan, en iyi \u015fekilde kullanmam\u0131z gereken bir bili\u015fsel darbo\u011faz m\u0131, yoksa i\u00e7inden se\u00e7ilmesi gereken fazla miktarda bilgi midir?<\/strong> Dahas\u0131, dikkat kavram\u0131 sorunun kendisine mi yoksa \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcne mi i\u015faret etmektedir? Ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan bu kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k, dikkat ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131n\u0131n ve kuramsal yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n, g\u00f6zlenen olgular\u0131n neden-sonu\u00e7 ili\u015fkilerini anlama temelli mekanistik anlay\u0131\u015f yerine, d\u00f6ng\u00fcsel a\u00e7\u0131klamalara dayanmas\u0131 (\u00f6rne\u011fin, dikkat olgular\u0131n\u0131n, dikkat sistemlerinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 varsay\u0131larak a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131) tehlikesini do\u011furmaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (Krauzlis ve al., 2014).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00dc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc olarak, dikkat \u00fczerine yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, psikolojik i\u015fleyi\u015fe y\u00f6nelik yayg\u0131n analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n etkisinde kalm\u0131\u015f ve bu durumdan olumsuz etkilenmi\u015ftir<\/strong> (bu meseleye dair ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bir tart\u0131\u015fma i\u00e7in bkz. Hommel & Colzato, 2015). Analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m, her ne kadar dikkat alt i\u015flevlerinin \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olmasa da kapsaml\u0131 bir tan\u0131m aray\u0131\u015f\u0131ndad\u0131r. Bu yakla\u015f\u0131ma g\u00f6re varsay\u0131lan her bir dikkat alt i\u015flevi (\u00f6rne\u011fin a\u00e7\u0131k\/overt ve \u00f6rt\u00fck\/covert, erken\/early ve ge\u00e7\/late, odaklanm\u0131\u015f\/focused ve b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f\/divided, istemli\/voluntary ve otomatik\/automatic dikkat) ayr\u0131 i\u015flevsel ve sinirsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerle ili\u015fkilendirilmeli ve bu alanlarda yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin kendisi yerine g\u00f6revler ve alt i\u015flevler \u00fczerine yo\u011funla\u015fmal\u0131d\u0131r. Bu yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n temel sorunu, dikkatin alt i\u015flevleri ve hatta bili\u015fe dair di\u011fer kavramlar aras\u0131ndaki ortakl\u0131klar\u0131 ele almamas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> \u00d6rne\u011fin, dikkat, karar verme, niyet, duygu ve motivasyon kavramlar\u0131n\u0131 farkl\u0131 durum ve kuramsal ba\u011flamlarda kullan\u0131yor olmam\u0131z, bunlar\u0131n alt\u0131nda yatan i\u015flevsel ve sinirsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin ger\u00e7ekten de farkl\u0131 ve ayr\u0131\u015f\u0131k oldu\u011fu anlam\u0131na gelmez.<\/strong> Nitekim, dikkatin temel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerini di\u011ferlerinden ay\u0131rmaya y\u00f6nelik \u00e7abalar \u00e7o\u011funlukla<\/strong> ortak bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fe var\u0131lamadan sonu\u00e7suz kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/strong> Bir sonraki b\u00f6l\u00fcmde analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131na \u00f6rnek te\u015fkil eden \u201cdikkat\u201d ve \u201cniyet\u201d kavramlar\u0131n\u0131n birbirinden ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na y\u00f6nelik giri\u015fimleri irdeleyece\u011fiz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

3. Dikkat ve Niyet: Ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z Bir Ayr\u0131m Giri\u015fimi<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

\u00c7o\u011fu ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131, se\u00e7ici dikkatin (selective attention) sinirsel temelinin posterior parietal korteksin oldu\u011funda ve bu b\u00f6lgenin \u201cdikkat a\u011f\u0131\u201d (attentional network) i\u00e7inde kritik bir rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda hemfikirdir (Corbetta & Shulman, 2011; Posner & Dehaene, 1994; Ptak, 2012). \u00d6zellikle posterior parietal korteksteki her bir tekil n\u00f6ron (individual neuron), dikkatin odakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 alan\u0131 yans\u0131tmaktad\u0131r (Bisley & Goldberg, 2010; Robinson, Goldberg, & Stanton, 1978) ve bu b\u00f6lgedeki hasar s\u0131kl\u0131kla mek\u00e2nsal ihmal (spatial neglect) olgusu ile ili\u015fkilidir (Bartolomeo, 2007; Corbetta & Shulman, 2011). Buna kar\u015f\u0131n baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, beynin bu b\u00f6lgelerinin hareket kontrol\u00fc ile ili\u015fkili s\u00fcre\u00e7lerde de rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir<\/strong> (Mountcastle, Lynch, Georgopoulos, Sakata & Acuna, 1975; Snyder, Batista & Andersen, 1997). \u00d6zellikle posterior parietal korteksin baz\u0131 b\u00f6lgelerinin, hareketin planlanmas\u0131 ve y\u00f6nlendirilmesinde rol oynayan frontal lob ile g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ba\u011flant\u0131lar\u0131 mevcuttur<\/strong> (Johnson, Ferraina, Bianchi & Caminiti, 1996; Markov ve ark., 2014). Ayr\u0131ca tekil n\u00f6ronlar\u0131n aktivitesi, ayn\u0131 uyar\u0131c\u0131lara y\u00f6nelik ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen hareket t\u00fcr\u00fcne ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak d\u00fczenlenmektedir<\/strong> (Cui & Andersen, 2007; Snyder ve ark., 1997) ve posterior parietal korteksin inaktivasyonu, serbest se\u00e7im g\u00f6revlerinde (free-choice tasks) sistematik \u00f6nyarg\u0131lara yol a\u00e7arken<\/strong> (Christopoulos, Kagan & Andersen, 2018),<\/strong> g\u00f6rsel kan\u0131tlara dayal\u0131 kararlarda ayni etkiyi yaratmamaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (Katz, Yates, Pillow & Huk, 2016).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu \u00e7eli\u015fkili bulgular, posterior parietal korteksin dikkati y\u00f6nlendirmede mi yoksa niyeti yans\u0131tmakta m\u0131 rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 konusundaki tart\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 uzun y\u0131llard\u0131r canl\u0131 tutmaktad\u0131r. Psikoloji bilimine h\u00e2kim analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n tipik bir \u00f6rne\u011fi olarak, dikkat ve niyet kavramlar\u0131, birbirini d\u0131\u015flayan \u015fekilde tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015f ve bu iki kavram\u0131n deneysel olarak ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilece\u011fi varsay\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu tan\u0131mlamaya g\u00f6re dikkat, duyusal bilgilerin bili\u015fsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lere eri\u015fimini k\u0131s\u0131tlayan ve belirli bilgilerin bilin\u00e7li fark\u0131ndal\u0131k kazanarak daha kapsaml\u0131 i\u015fleme tabi tutulmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan s\u00fcre\u00e7tir. Niyet ise, \u00f6zg\u00fcr irade olsun ya da olmas\u0131n, bili\u015fsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olup belirli bir eylemi yapma y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki kararl\u0131l\u0131kt\u0131r. Oysa, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u00f6nde gelen sinir bilimcilerinin onlarca y\u0131ll\u0131k \u00e7abalar\u0131na ra\u011fmen, posterior parietal korteksin i\u015flevinin net bir \u015fekilde ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 h\u00e2l\u00e2 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olamam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/strong> Culham ve Kanwisher<\/strong> (2001) bu durumu, mevcut parietal i\u015flev hipotezlerinin ger\u00e7ekte parietal loblar\u0131n i\u015flevsel \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmesini yans\u0131tmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve kavramsal bir ilerleme olmadan daha iyi hipotezler test etmenin m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade ederek \u00f6zetlemi\u015ftir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar,<\/strong> dikkat ve niyet aras\u0131ndaki karma\u015fay\u0131 a\u015fmak i\u00e7in daha b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirici bir yakla\u015f\u0131m \u00f6nermi\u015flerdir; premotor teori<\/strong> (pre-motor theory)<\/strong> bu konuda \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan bir modeldir.<\/strong> Premotor teoriye g\u00f6re, dikkat kaymalar\u0131<\/strong>, g\u00f6z hareketlerini y\u00f6neten<\/strong> (oculomotor)<\/strong> alt e\u015fik<\/strong> (sub-threshold)<\/strong> sakkadik komutlarla tetiklenir<\/strong> ve<\/strong> tersine dikkatin mek\u00e2nsal kaymalar\u0131 hareket planlamas\u0131n\u0131 ba\u015flat\u0131r<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Rizzolatti, Riggio, Dascola & Umilta, 1987). Bu fikre destek niteli\u011finde \u00e7ok say\u0131da g\u00f6zlem mevcuttur:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

a) Dikkat ve g\u00f6z hareketlerinin davran\u0131\u015fsal olarak g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bi\u00e7imde ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011funu g\u00f6steren davran\u0131\u015fsal \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Deubel & Schneider, 1996; Kowler, Anderson, Dosher & Blaser, 1995; Sheliga, Riggio & Rizzolatti, 1995);<\/p>\n\n\n\n

b) G\u00f6rsel dikkat g\u00f6revlerinde g\u00f6z hareketi alanlar\u0131n\u0131n aktivasyonunu g\u00f6steren fMRI \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Beauchamp, Petit, Ellmore, Ingeholm & Haxby, 2001; Corbetta ve ark., 1998; Nobre, Sebestyen & Miniussi, 2000) ve hareket iceren g\u00f6revlerde retinotopik olarak tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015f g\u00f6rsel kortekste hareket aktivasyonunun (dekodlama) g\u00f6zlemlenmesi (Gallivan, Chapman, Gale, Flanagan & Culham, 2019);<\/p>\n\n\n\n

c) Superior kollikulus<\/strong> (superior colliculus \/ SC), frontal g\u00f6z alan\u0131<\/strong> (frontal eye field \/ FEF) ve lateral intraparietal alan\u0131n<\/strong> (lateral intraparietal area \/ LIP) n\u00f6ronlar\u0131n\u0131n uyar\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n dikkatin odak noktas\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fi\u015ftirebilece\u011fini g\u00f6steren \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar<\/strong> (Cavanaugh & Wurtz, 2004; Cutrell & Marrocco, 2002; Moore & Fallah, 2001; Muller, Philiastides & Newsome, 2005);<\/p>\n\n\n\n

d) Frontal korteks, parietal korteks veya orta beyin <\/strong>(midbrain) hasar\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 dikkat bozukluklar\u0131 olan hastalar \u00fczerinde yap\u0131lan n\u00f6rolojik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Husain & Kennard, 1996; Posner, Cohen & Rafal, 1982; Posner, Rafal, Choate & Vaughan, 1985; Sapir, Soroker, Berger & Henik, 1999).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu ba\u011flamda \u00f6zellikle \u00f6nemli olan,<\/strong> yakla\u015fan bir sakkad\u0131n hedef konumunda alg\u0131sal ay\u0131rma yetisinin iyile\u015fti\u011fini ortaya koyan davran\u0131\u015fsal \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalard\u0131r<\/strong> (Deubel & Schneider, 1996; Gersch, Kowler & Dosher, 2004; Hoffman & Subramaniam, 1995; Peterson, Kramer & Irwin, 2004). Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, sakkad ba\u015flamadan hemen \u00f6nce, sakkad hedefindeki uyaranlar\u0131n \u00f6ncelikli olarak i\u015flendi\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir; muhtemelen bunun nedeni dikkatin hedef konuma kaym\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> Davran\u0131\u015fsal \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n ortaya koydu\u011fu, yakla\u015fan bir sakkad\u0131n hedef konumunda alg\u0131sal ay\u0131rma yetisini iyile\u015ftirdi\u011fi bulgusu bu ba\u011flamda \u00f6zellikle \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131maktad\u0131r (Deubel & Schneider, 1996; Gersch, Kowler & Dosher, 2004; Hoffman & Subramaniam, 1995; Peterson, Kramer & Irwin, 2004). Bu ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, sakkad hareketi ba\u015flamadan hemen \u00f6nce, hedef noktadaki uyaranlar\u0131n \u00f6ncelikli i\u015flendi\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir; bu durum dikkatsel oda\u011f\u0131n hedef noktaya \u00f6nceden y\u00f6nlendirilmesi ile a\u00e7\u0131klanabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            Ba\u015fka ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, eylem ve dikkat aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fime dair \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 el hareketlerini de kapsayacak \u015fekilde geni\u015fletmi\u015ftir.<\/strong> Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n sonucunda, uzanma ile kavrama hareketlerinin planlanmas\u0131 ve ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmesinin bu hareketlerin y\u00f6neldi\u011fi nesnelerin i\u015flenmesine \u00f6ncelik verdi\u011fini g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Pratt & Abrams, 1994; Rizzolati, Riggio & Sheliga, 1994; Tipper, Lortie & Baylis, 1992; ayr\u0131ca bkz. Wu, 2014). G\u00f6zler sabit kalsa bile, alg\u0131sal ay\u0131rt etme hedeflenen konumda di\u011fer konumlara g\u00f6re daha etkili olmaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (Baldauf & Deubel, 2008; Baldauf, Wolf & Deubel, 2006; Deubel & Schneider, 2003; Deubel, Schneider & Paprotta, 1998; Khan, Song & McPeek, 2011). Gelecekteki eylemlere ili\u015fkin niyetle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 \u201cdikkatsel etki\u201d (attentional impact) ya da \u00f6ncelikli i\u015fleme (prioritized processing) sadece mek\u00e2nsal \u00f6nceliklendirme (spatial prioritization) ile s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalmamaktad\u0131r. Di\u011fer \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, hareket etmeye haz\u0131rlanman\u0131n veya hareket planlaman\u0131n, hedef nesnenin eylemle ili\u015fkili \u00f6zelliklerinin de alg\u0131lanmas\u0131n\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, elimizle kavrama hareketine haz\u0131rlanmak boyut a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan farkl\u0131 uyaranlar\u0131n<\/strong> (size oddballs) fark edilmesini, i\u015faret etme hareketine haz\u0131rlanmak ise konum a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan farkl\u0131 uyaranlar\u0131n<\/strong> (location oddballs) fark edilmesini kolayla\u015ft\u0131rmaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (Fagioli, Hommel & Schubotz, 2007; ayr\u0131ca bkz. Craighero, Fadiga, Rizzolatti & Umilt\u00e0, 1999). Di\u011fer bulgular da <\/strong>(Bekkering & Neggers, 2002; Moher, Anderson & Song, 2015; Tipper, Meegan & Howard, 2002; Weir ve ark., 2003; Welsh & Pratt, 2008; Welsh & Zbinden, 2009; ayr\u0131ca bkz. Gallivan, Barton, Chapman, Wolpert & Flanagan, 2015; Glazebrook, Welsh & Tremblay, 2016; Yoxon, Constable & Welsh, 2019) nesnelerin belirli \u00f6zelliklerinin,<\/strong> o anda yap\u0131lacak eyleme \u00f6zg\u00fc \u00f6nemine ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak \u00f6ncelik kazanabilece\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/strong> Ba\u015fka bir deyi\u015fle, belirli bir \u00f6zellik (\u00f6rne\u011fin y\u00f6nelim) bir durumda (\u00f6rne\u011fin kavrama eyleminde) \u00f6ncelikli hale gelirken, ba\u015fka bir durumda (\u00f6rne\u011fin i\u015faret etme eyleminde) \u00f6ncelikli olmamaktad\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, se\u00e7icilik yaln\u0131zca fiziksel uyaran \u00f6zellikleri ya da eylem hedeflerinden kaynaklanmamaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Se\u00e7icilik, bu fakt\u00f6rler aras\u0131ndaki kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ve yinelenen etkile\u015fimlerle \u015fekillenmektedir.<\/strong> Bu bulgular, se\u00e7ici dikkatin birden \u00e7ok i\u015flevsel ve sinirsel sistemi kapsad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

“Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, se\u00e7icilik yaln\u0131zca fiziksel uyaran \u00f6zellikleri ya da eylem hedeflerinden kaynaklanmamaktad\u0131r. Se\u00e7icilik, bu fakt\u00f6rler aras\u0131ndaki kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ve yinelenen etkile\u015fimlerle \u015fekillenmektedir. Bu bulgular, se\u00e7ici dikkatin birden \u00e7ok i\u015flevsel ve sinirsel sistemi kapsad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir.”<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Uyaran \u00f6zellikleri ile eylem hedeflerinin etkile\u015fimi, mek\u00e2nlar\u0131n ve \u00f6zelliklerin se\u00e7imi ile \u00f6nceliklendirilmesinde rol oynamaktad\u0131r. Ancak bu se\u00e7imin yaln\u0131zca varsay\u0131msal bir dikkat sistemi i\u00e7inde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fi a\u00e7\u0131k de\u011fildir. Nitekim, potansiyel hedef konumlarda eyleme y\u00f6nelik e\u015f zamanl\u0131 aktif olan \u00e7oklu ama\u00e7larla ve nihai hedef se\u00e7imiyle ili\u015fkili sinirsel aktivite, eylem planlamas\u0131 ve uygulanmas\u0131yla daha yak\u0131n ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 olan beyin b\u00f6lgelerinde saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. <\/strong>Bu yap\u0131lar dorsal premotor alan (dorsal premotor area), parietal uzan\u0131m b\u00f6lgesi (parietal reach region) ve motor korteksi (motor cortex) i\u00e7erir (Cisek ve Kalaska, 2005; Klaes, Westendorff, Chakrabarti ve Gail, 2011; Pesaran, Nelson ve Andersen, 2008; Scherberger ve Andersen, 2007; Song ve McPeek, 2010; Thura ve Cisek, 2014). Davran\u0131\u015fsal a\u00e7\u0131dan, birden \u00e7ok e\u015fzamanl\u0131 tepki temsilinin bulunmas\u0131 ve hedef ile hedef-olmayan uyaran ve eylemler aras\u0131ndaki dinamik se\u00e7im s\u00fcreci, uzanma ve kavrama hareketlerinin mek\u00e2nsal-zamansal \u00f6zelliklerinde de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r. Dikkat temelli se\u00e7imin niyet olu\u015fumundan \u00f6nce tamamlanm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131yla beklenebilecek etkili ve do\u011frudan hareketler yerine; el ve g\u00f6z hareketlerinin y\u00f6r\u00fcngeleri, hedef d\u0131\u015f\u0131 uyaranlar\u0131n zamanlamas\u0131na ve \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kma derecesine ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak bu uyaranlara do\u011fru veya onlardan uza\u011fa kayma g\u00f6stermektedir<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Chapman ve ark., 2010; Gallivan ve Chapman, 2014; Howard ve Tipper, 1997; Moher ve ark., 2015; Neyedli ve Welsh, 2012; Song ve Nakayama, 2006, 2008; Welsh, 2011; Welsh ve Elliott, 2004; Wispinski, Gallivan ve Chapman). Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, fiziksel olarak icra edilen eylemin \u00f6zellikleri<\/strong> (characteristics of the physically executed action), hedef ve hedef d\u0131\u015f\u0131 uyaranlar\u0131n \u201cdikkatsel\u201d durumunu do\u011frudan yans\u0131tmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu bulgular, dikkat, se\u00e7ilim<\/strong> (selection) ve niyetin ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 kategoriler halinde ele al\u0131namayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131; bunlar\u0131n yo\u011fun ba\u011flant\u0131lar i\u00e7eren paralel bir sistemde birlikte i\u015fleyen, s\u00fcreklilik arz eden s\u00fcre\u00e7ler oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

T\u00fcm bu sinirsel ve davran\u0131\u015fsal ara\u015ft\u0131rma bulgular\u0131n\u0131 tutarl\u0131 bir \u00e7er\u00e7eveye oturtmak i\u00e7in daha fazla \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma gerekli. Yine de bizim g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcze g\u00f6re, dikkat ile niyet kavramlar\u0131n\u0131n ayr\u0131m\u0131 burada ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00e7e\u015fitli bulgular\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamada yetersiz kal\u0131yor.<\/strong> Bu ayr\u0131m, bulgular\u0131 anlaml\u0131 bi\u00e7imde s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rarak yeni kuramsal \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 te\u015fvik edecek bir k\u0131lavuz sa\u011flam\u0131yor ve giri\u015f<\/strong> (input)\/\u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f (output) s\u00fcre\u00e7leri aras\u0131ndaki \u00e7oklu etkile\u015fimlerle de \u00e7eli\u015fiyor.<\/strong> Peki bu ve benzeri insan dikkatine dair kavramsal sorunlara<\/strong> (\u00f6rne\u011fin kontroll\u00fc (controlled) ve otomatik (automatic) s\u00fcre\u00e7ler veya kolayla\u015ft\u0131rma (facilitation) ve bask\u0131lama (inhibition))<\/strong> ne t\u00fcr bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm getirmek gerekir?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

4. Ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z Bir Analitik \u00c7\u00f6z\u00fcm: Se\u00e7im ve \u00d6d\u00fcl Ge\u00e7mi\u015fi<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Yukar\u0131da belirtildi\u011fi gibi, psikolojik i\u015fleyi\u015fi \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlemede h\u00e2kim olan analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m, bir kavram\u0131 eksiksiz bi\u00e7imde tan\u0131mlayarak onu di\u011fer kavramlardan kesin s\u0131n\u0131rlarla ay\u0131rmay\u0131 hedefler. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u201cdikkat\u201d kavram\u0131n\u0131 anlamak i\u00e7in, bunun \u201cniyet\u201d, \u201ckarar verme\u201d ya da \u201cmotivasyon\u201d gibi kavramlardan nas\u0131l farkl\u0131 oldu\u011fu tart\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131r. Ne var ki dikkat\u2013niyet ayr\u0131m\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00fczere, bu strateji ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131kla sonu\u00e7lanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve buna y\u00f6nelik iki farkl\u0131 alternatif \u00f6nerilebilir.<\/strong> Birincisi, \u00f6nceki tan\u0131mlama giri\u015fimlerinin yetersiz oldu\u011fu kabul edilip kavramlar aras\u0131 \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fmenin azalt\u0131lmas\u0131 hedeflenerek daha geli\u015fmi\u015f tan\u0131mlar \u00f6nerilebilir. \u00d6rne\u011fin dikkat kavram\u0131 yaln\u0131zca girdi (input) se\u00e7imine, niyet kavram\u0131n\u0131 ise yaln\u0131zca \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 (output) se\u00e7imine indirgenebilir. Dikkat kavram\u0131n\u0131n bu denli daralt\u0131lmas\u0131, art\u0131k b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirme (integration), y\u00f6nelim (orientation) ya da uyan\u0131kl\u0131k (vigilance) gibi di\u011fer dikkate y\u00f6nelik i\u015flevlerle ili\u015fkili g\u00f6r\u00fclmemesine,<\/strong> nihayetinde kavramdan vazge\u00e7ilmesini mecburi k\u0131lar. Ayn\u0131 durum niyet kavram\u0131 i\u00e7in de ge\u00e7erlidir.<\/strong> Olumlu y\u00f6nden bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda b\u00f6yle bir yakla\u015f\u0131m,<\/strong> benzerlik g\u00f6stermeyen s\u00fcre\u00e7ler ve yap\u0131lar aras\u0131nda yapay ortakl\u0131klar aranmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcne ge\u00e7mektedir.<\/strong> Fakat olumsuz yan\u0131, neden yaln\u0131zca bu i\u015flevsel boyutlar\u0131n se\u00e7ilip di\u011ferlerinin d\u0131\u015fland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klayacak hi\u00e7bir kuramsal temelin bulunmamas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu nedenle, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta teknik bir tan\u0131m sorunu olarak beliren mesele, ger\u00e7ekte gerek\u00e7esiz bir kuramsal \u00f6nyarg\u0131ya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmektedir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ba\u015fka bir alternatif olarak baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, ek bile\u015fen ve fakt\u00f6rleri hesaba katan hibrit (hybrid) yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm olarak \u00f6nermi\u015ftir. Buna \u00f6rnek olarak 1970 ve 1980\u2019lerde yo\u011fun tart\u0131\u015fmalara yol a\u00e7an dikkat kaynaklar\u0131 kuram\u0131 (the resource theory of attention) (Kahneman, 1973; Navon, 1984) g\u00f6sterilebilir. \u0130lk yakla\u015f\u0131mlar, t\u00fcm zihinsel faaliyetlere payla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 gereken tek bir kaynak varsayarak sade ve anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r bir model veriyordu<\/strong>. Ne var ki yeni bulgular\u0131n eklenmesiyle bunlar\u0131 birle\u015ftirme \u00e7abalar\u0131, giderek daha \u00e7ok say\u0131da ve t\u00fcrde ayr\u0131 kaynak \u00f6nerilmesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131.<\/strong> Sonu\u00e7 itibariyle bu durum, sistematik \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fclerde bulunmay\u0131 olanaks\u0131z hale getirdi (Navon, 1984). Bu yakla\u015f\u0131m g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde terk edilmi\u015ftir; yaln\u0131zca ego t\u00fckenmesi <\/strong>(ego-depletion) alan\u0131nda benzer tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir<\/strong> (Friese, Loschelder, Gieseler, Frankenbach ve Inzlicht, bask\u0131da). Hibrit modellerin ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n as\u0131l nedeni ise, bir araya getirilen farkl\u0131 fakt\u00f6rlerin tutarl\u0131 ve b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fik bir kuramsal \u00e7er\u00e7eveye d\u00e2hil edilememesidir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Se\u00e7ici dikkat konusunda da benzer bir y\u00f6nelim g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Awh, Belopolsky ve Theeuwes (2012), ki\u015fi taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6nlendirilen ya da i\u00e7sel dikkat (endogenous attention) ile mevcut eylem ve hedeflerle ilgili olmayan uyar\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6ncelikli i\u015flenmesini g\u00f6steren d\u0131\u015f kaynakl\u0131 ya da d\u0131\u015fsal dikkat (exogenous attention) aras\u0131ndaki fark\u0131 ele alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Ayn\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar bu iki t\u00fcr\u00fc aras\u0131ndaki geleneksel ayr\u0131mla art\u0131k uyu\u015fmayan bulgular aras\u0131nda ba\u011flant\u0131 kurma giri\u015fiminde bulunmu\u015flard\u0131r. \u0130\u00e7sel-d\u0131\u015fsal dikkat ayr\u0131m\u0131, t\u0131pk\u0131 dikkat-niyet ayr\u0131m\u0131 gibi, kavramlar\u0131 daha iyi tan\u0131mlama amac\u0131yla yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f; fakat giderek artan kan\u0131tlar, bu kategorilerin yetersizli\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6zetle, i\u00e7sel dikkat bazen fazlas\u0131yla otomatik, d\u0131\u015fsal dikkat ise hedefe ve \u00e7evresel uyaranlar\u0131n \u00f6zelliklerine ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 olabilece\u011fi i\u00e7in bu ayr\u0131m, uygulamada s\u0131kl\u0131kla i\u015flevsiz kalmaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (Awh ve ark., 2012; Folk, Remington ve Johnston, 1992; Hommel ve Wiers, 2017). Awh ve arkada\u015flar\u0131 (2012) bu sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zmek amac\u0131yla \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc bir de\u011fi\u015fken olarak se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fi (selection history) eklenmesini \u00f6nermektedir. Bu yakla\u015f\u0131ma g\u00f6re hedeflerin<\/strong> (i\u00e7sel dikkatin temel belirleyicisi), belirginli\u011fin\/sal\u0131ens’in (salience) (d\u0131\u015fsal dikkatin temel belirleyicisi) ve se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015finin (\u00f6nceki se\u00e7imler ile bu se\u00e7imlerin sonucu olan \u00f6d\u00fcllerle ili\u015fkili, s\u00f6z konusu i\u00e7sel-d\u0131\u015fsal ikili\u011fine uygun olmayan bir fakt\u00f6r) t\u00fcm\u00fc se\u00e7icili\u011fe (selectivity) katk\u0131 sa\u011flamakta, \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131lar (output) ise b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirici bir \u00f6ncelik haritas\u0131na (integrative priority map) y\u00f6nlendirilmektedir.<\/strong> Bu yakla\u015f\u0131m bir\u00e7ok mevcut bulguyu a\u00e7\u0131klayabilir g\u00f6r\u00fcnse de bizim kanaatimizce as\u0131l sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zmemekte, kavramsal bir b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fckten ziyade ge\u00e7ici bir \u201cyama\u201d (patch) i\u015flevi g\u00f6rmektedir.<\/strong> Sonu\u00e7ta bu yakla\u015f\u0131m uygun \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlerin aranmas\u0131n\u0131 engellemekte veya bu alandaki ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 yanl\u0131\u015f y\u00f6nlendirmektedir.<\/strong> Bizim g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcze g\u00f6re, radikal bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm olarak bu kavram\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle tasfiyesi ve yeniden in\u015fas\u0131 gereklidir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130lk bak\u0131\u015fta, insan merkezi sinir sisteminde \u00f6ncelikli i\u015flemeyi belirleyen bilgilerin toplan\u0131p b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirildi\u011fi \u00f6zel yap\u0131 veya yap\u0131lardan s\u00f6z etmekte herhangi bir sorun yok gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir. Bu ba\u011flamda \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan yap\u0131lardan biri, g\u00f6rsel alan i\u00e7in \u00f6ncelik haritas\u0131 olu\u015fturdu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen superior kollikulus\u2019tur (superior colliculus) (Fecteau ve Munoz, 2006). Superior kollikulus\u2019un yaln\u0131zca ok\u00fclomotor kontrolle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131; g\u00f6z, ba\u015f, v\u00fccut ve elin y\u00f6nelim hareketlerinde de rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir<\/strong> (Gandhi ve Katnani, 2011; Stuphorn, Hoffmann ve Miller, 1999). Bu veriler, davran\u0131\u015fsal bak\u0131mdan \u00f6nemli olan uyaranlar i\u00e7in se\u00e7icili\u011fin t\u00fcm hareketli bedene yay\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc ile tutarl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6sterir.<\/strong> Song ve arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n bulgular\u0131, \u00f6zellikle el ile uzanma g\u00f6revlerinde superior kollikulus\u2019un hedef se\u00e7imindeki nedensel rol\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6stererek bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc peki\u015ftirmektedir (Song, Rafal, ve McPeek, 2011; Song ve McPeek, 2015). B\u00f6ylece bu yap\u0131n\u0131n genel ama\u00e7l\u0131 bir hedef se\u00e7me\/y\u00f6nelim (selection\/orientation) sistemi i\u00e7inde i\u015flev g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc fikrini desteklemi\u015flerdir (Nummela ve Krauzlis, 2010; Song, 2011). \u00d6te yandan, superior kollikulus\u2019un dikkati y\u00f6nlendiren bilgilerin b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fti\u011fi tek harita oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek gerekmedi\u011fi gibi, mevcut t\u00fcm bilgilerin burada topland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 varsaymaya da gerek yoktur. Bir sonraki k\u0131s\u0131mlarda da tart\u0131\u015faca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00fczere, insan beyninde \u00e7ok say\u0131da se\u00e7icilik kayna\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r ve nihayetinde b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirmeyi ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftiren yap\u0131 beynin tamam\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirme s\u00fcreci zaten a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 gereken bir olgudur<\/strong> (explanandum). Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, sadece bu i\u015flevi yapmak i\u00e7in tasarlanm\u0131\u015f tek bir haritan\u0131n var oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek, psikolojik bir olguyu a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in o olguyu bir nevi yaratmakla g\u00f6revli \u00f6zel bir sistem oldu\u011funu varsaymak anlam\u0131na gelir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

“Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, sadece bu i\u015flevi yapmak i\u00e7in tasarlanm\u0131\u015f tek bir haritan\u0131n var oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek, psikolojik bir olguyu a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in o olguyu bir nevi yaratmakla g\u00f6revli \u00f6zel bir sistem oldu\u011funu varsaymak anlam\u0131na gelir.”<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Bu daha genel \u00fcst-kuramsal<\/strong> (meta-theoretical) sorun d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirmenin nas\u0131l ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131klamadan sadece varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 varsayan modellere yeni bir fakt\u00f6r eklemek, ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 anlaml\u0131 bi\u00e7imde y\u00f6nlendirmeyecektir. <\/strong>\u00d6rne\u011fin Awh ve arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n (2012) yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131nda, se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fi hem hedef odakl\u0131 i\u00e7sel hem de belirginlik (salience) odakl\u0131 d\u0131\u015fsal se\u00e7icilikle b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fmektedir.<\/strong> Belirli eylem t\u00fcrlerini planlamak ve uygulamak, nesnelerin baz\u0131 \u00f6zelliklerinin i\u015flenmesini sistematik olarak kolayla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131r<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. elimizle kavramada boyut ve y\u00f6nelim, bir nesneye uzanmada konum: Bekkering ve Neggers, 2002; Craighero ve ark., 1999; Fagioli ve ark., 2007). Bu kolayla\u015fma, genetik olarak belirlenmi\u015f olmaktan ziyade, ya\u015fam boyu kavramaya dair edinilen deneyim ve \u00f6\u011frenme s\u00fcrecinin bir sonucudur<\/strong> (Hommel, 2010). Ger\u00e7ekten de kavrama eyleminde \u015fekil ve y\u00f6nelime odaklanmak, renge odaklanmaktan daha i\u015flevseldir; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 bir kavramay\u0131 belirleyen temel \u00f6zellikler bunlard\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla,<\/strong> kavrama s\u0131ras\u0131nda \u015fekil ve y\u00f6nelime renk kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda bir \u00f6ncelik vermek i\u015flevsel bir uyum (functional adaptation) olacakt\u0131r.<\/strong> Bununla birlikte se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015finin, hedeflerin i\u00e7sel dikkati y\u00f6nlendirme bi\u00e7imini \u015fekillendirdi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde,<\/strong> g\u00f6rsel \u00f6zelliklerin belirginli\u011finin \u00e7ocuklu\u011fun ilk y\u0131llar\u0131nda ciddi bi\u00e7imde de\u011fi\u015fmesi<\/strong> (\u00f6rn. Suchman ve Trabasso, 1966), se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015finin belirginli\u011fi<\/strong> (salience)<\/strong> de etkileyebilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Her ne kadar t\u00fcm bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler, Awh ve arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n (2012) \u00f6nerdi\u011fi se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015finin \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc bir fakt\u00f6r olarak dikkate al\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131 desteklese de asl\u0131nda bu \u00fc\u00e7 fakt\u00f6r\u00fcn birbirinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z de\u011fil, hem ampirik hem de kavramsal d\u00fczeyde g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bi\u00e7imde i\u00e7 i\u00e7e ge\u00e7ti\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/strong> A\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00fczere, bu t\u00fcr kavramsal \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fme sorunlar\u0131n\u0131n daha fazla tan\u0131m \u00fcretmekle \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclebilmesi pek olas\u0131 de\u011fildir. Bunun yerine, yaln\u0131zca b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirmenin ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fini varsayan de\u011fil, bu b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirmenin isleyi\u015fini de a\u00e7\u0131klayan bir kurama ihtiya\u00e7 vard\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fini ek bir fakt\u00f6r olarak dahil etmenin daha \u00e7ok soru i\u015faretini beraberinde getirmesinin bir ba\u015fka nedeni de kavram\u0131n kendisinin belirsiz olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> \u00d6zellikle i\u00e7sel ve d\u0131\u015fsal dikkatin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda da pek \u00e7ok fakt\u00f6rle \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fmesi, kavramsal ayr\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 zorla\u015ft\u0131rmaktad\u0131r. Bu fakt\u00f6rlerden biri, se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fiyle i\u00e7 i\u00e7e olan \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015fidir (reward history). Daha \u00f6nce \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilmi\u015f uyaranlar\u0131n \u00f6ncelikli i\u015flem g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc tart\u0131\u015fmas\u0131z bir bulgudur<\/strong> (Anderson, Laurent, ve Yantis, 2011; Anderson ve Yantis, 2012). Bu da \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015finin belirginli\u011fi (salience) \u015fekillendirmede \u00f6nemli oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir. Normalde, bir organizman\u0131n \u00f6d\u00fcl alabilmesi i\u00e7in uyaranlar\u0131n \u00f6nceden se\u00e7ilmi\u015f olmas\u0131 gerekir; bu da se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fi ve \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015fi kavramlar\u0131n\u0131n i\u00e7 i\u00e7e ge\u00e7mesine yol a\u00e7maktad\u0131r. Awh ve arkada\u015flar\u0131 (2012) da bu konuya dikkat \u00e7ekmekte ve hem \u00f6nceki \u00f6d\u00fclleri hem de \u00f6nceki uyaran se\u00e7imlerini \u201cse\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fi\u201dnin (selection history) \u00f6rnekleri olarak de\u011ferlendirmektedir. Bununla birlikte, se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fi ve \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015fi ayn\u0131 \u015fey olamaz; zira \u00f6nceki se\u00e7imlerin t\u00fcm\u00fc \u00f6d\u00fclle sonu\u00e7lanm\u0131\u015f de\u011fildir.<\/strong> Dahas\u0131, \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015finin bu ortak kategoriye dahil edilmesi, teorik b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirmenin \u00f6ne s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc kadar a\u00e7\u0131k de\u011fildir; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015finin kendisi b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla birbirinden ay\u0131rt edilebilir pek \u00e7ok fakt\u00f6rden olu\u015fmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6rne\u011fin, \u00f6d\u00fcllendirici uyaranlara kar\u015f\u0131 tercihimiz de\u011fi\u015fkenlik g\u00f6sterir. Y\u00fcksek \u00f6d\u00fcl alma \u015fans\u0131 varsa bu tercih daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcd\u00fcr; ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131k maliyeti d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckse daha zay\u0131ft\u0131r<\/strong> (Neyedli ve Welsh, 2015b). Bu bulgu, kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6d\u00fcllendirici olarak alg\u0131lad\u0131klar\u0131 \u015feyin \u00e7ok boyutlu oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir.<\/strong> Asl\u0131nda yaln\u0131zca \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fc alma olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 da \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131maktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Ayr\u0131ca, bir dizi ula\u015fma-karar deneyinde (reach-decision experiments) \u00e7ok say\u0131da \u00f6nyarg\u0131lay\u0131c\u0131 (biased) fakt\u00f6r g\u00f6zlemlenmi\u015ftir. Bunlardan<\/strong> baz\u0131lar\u0131 \u00f6d\u00fcl de\u011feri ve olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131<\/strong> (Chapman, Gallivan ve Enns, 2015a), karar vermeye y\u00f6nelik en iyi se\u00e7enek<\/strong> (Wispinski, Truong, Handy ve Chapman, 2017), mevcut birikmi\u015f servet d\u00fczeyi<\/strong> (Neyedli ve Welsh, 2015a), hedeflerin nas\u0131l alg\u0131land\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan ziyade miktar\u0131<\/strong> (Milne, 2013) ve olas\u0131 se\u00e7eneklerinin nas\u0131l sunuldu\u011fu<\/strong> (Chapman, 2014) olarak say\u0131labilir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Buradaki temel sorun, Awh ve arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n (2012) \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 soruna benzemektedir, o da incelenen kavram\u0131n tan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n fazla dar tutulmas\u0131ndan kaynaklanmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Daha \u00f6nce de a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z gibi i\u00e7sel ve d\u0131\u015fsal kontrol ayr\u0131m\u0131 yeterli olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan Awh ve arkada\u015flar\u0131 (2012) se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fini eklemi\u015flerdir. Ne var ki se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fi dahi kendi i\u00e7inde se\u00e7im (selection) ve \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015fi (reward history) olarak ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilir ve hatta \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015fi de farkl\u0131 alt birimler \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclebilir.<\/strong> Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fcn do\u011fas\u0131 ve etkisi, \u00e7ok say\u0131da ba\u011flamsal de\u011fi\u015fkene ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak farkl\u0131 \u015fekillerde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu nedenle, tekil bir yap\u0131 \u00f6nerisi a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 olmaktan uzakt\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

E\u015fit b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckteki kay\u0131p ve kazan\u00e7 aras\u0131ndaki simetriyi sorgulayan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, kavramsal tabloyu daha da karma\u015f\u0131kla\u015ft\u0131rmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> \u00d6rne\u011fin, Kahneman ve Tversky\u2019nin (1979) \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131yla \u00fcnl\u00fc hale gelen kay\u0131p aversiyonu<\/strong> (loss aversion), e\u015fit b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckteki kay\u0131plar\u0131n kazan\u00e7lardan daha a\u011f\u0131r bast\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcrmektedir.<\/strong> \u0130lgin\u00e7 bir \u015fekilde, h\u0131zl\u0131 kararlar al\u0131naca\u011f\u0131 zaman bu etki tersine d\u00f6nmekte<\/strong> (Chapman, 2015b), se\u00e7im davran\u0131\u015f\u0131nda yine asimetriler g\u00f6zleniyor olsa da kay\u0131p aversiyonunun tersi g\u00f6zlenmektedir.<\/strong> Bir ba\u015fka ifadeyle, bu t\u00fcr durumlarda kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar orant\u0131s\u0131z bir \u015fekilde kazan\u00e7 sa\u011flayan se\u00e7eneklere y\u00f6nelirken, kay\u0131pla ili\u015fkili tercihlerin cayd\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 zay\u0131flamaktad\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu sonu\u00e7lar bizi ba\u015fka bir karma\u015f\u0131k duruma g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcyor:<\/strong> farkl\u0131 \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar (biases) muhtemelen farkl\u0131 zaman aral\u0131klar\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> \u00d6rne\u011fin, iyi bir se\u00e7ene\u011fi tercih etmek ile k\u00f6t\u00fc bir se\u00e7enekten ka\u00e7\u0131nma kararlar\u0131ndaki asimetriyi inceleyen bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmada, \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131n i\u015fleme h\u0131zlar\u0131 farkl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6stermektedir. Bireyler, kazan\u00e7 sa\u011flayan hedeflere y\u00f6nelimde kay\u0131plardan ka\u00e7\u0131nmaya k\u0131yasla daha h\u0131zl\u0131, 100 ms daha erken tepki verirler <\/strong>(Chapman, 2015b). Bu durum, olumsuz de\u011fere dayal\u0131 g\u00f6rsel-motor se\u00e7imlerin optimal yap\u0131labilmesi i\u00e7in \u00f6d\u00fcl olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na dayal\u0131 farkl\u0131l\u0131klara k\u0131yasla daha fazla i\u015flem s\u00fcresine ihtiya\u00e7 duyuldu\u011funu \u00f6ne s\u00fcren \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarla da tutarl\u0131d\u0131r<\/strong> (Neyedli ve Welsh, 2015b).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

T\u00fcm bu bulgular birlikte ele al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015finin \u00f6d\u00fcl ge\u00e7mi\u015fiyle yak\u0131ndan i\u00e7 i\u00e7e ge\u00e7ti\u011fini ve bu kavramlar\u0131n hi\u00e7birinin yeterince iyi anla\u015f\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir<\/strong>. Bu nedenle se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015fini, halihaz\u0131rda tam olarak anla\u015f\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f olan d\u0131\u015fsal ve i\u00e7sel dikkat kavramlar\u0131na eklemek, se\u00e7ici dikkatin mekanizmalar\u0131n\u0131 anlamaya fazla katk\u0131 sa\u011flamayacakt\u0131r. Bizim \u00f6nerimiz yeni bir teori in\u015fa etmekten ziyade, teorik \u00e7er\u00e7evenin de\u011fi\u015fmesidir. Karma\u015f\u0131k olgular\u0131 dikkatle tan\u0131mlay\u0131p daha basit bile\u015fenlerine ay\u0131rarak a\u00e7\u0131klamay\u0131 hedefleyen analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m yerine, basit mekanizmalar\u0131n ve i\u015flevsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin etkile\u015fiminden karma\u015f\u0131k davran\u0131\u015fsal olgular\u0131n nas\u0131l ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 irdeleyen sentetik bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 benimsemek gerekti\u011fine inan\u0131yoruz.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

5. Sentetik Bir Yakla\u015f\u0131m<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Sentetik bir yakla\u015f\u0131m, yaln\u0131zca biyolojik ger\u00e7eklikle uyumlu sinirsel ve i\u015flevsel s\u00fcre\u00e7leri b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirdi\u011finde anlam ta\u015f\u0131r.<\/strong>  Ne var ki, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin neler oldu\u011funu belirlemek zordur. Yapaca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z sentezi biyolojik zeminde tutman\u0131n etkili yollar\u0131ndan biri ise evrimi bir referans noktas\u0131 olarak kullanmaktan ge\u00e7mektedir.<\/strong> Bu do\u011frultuda \u201cfilogenetik ar\u0131tma\u201d (phylogenetic refinement) ad\u0131 verilen bir y\u00f6ntem kullan\u0131labilir. \u201cFilogenetik ar\u0131tma\u201d prosed\u00fcr\u00fc, evrimsel \u00e7izgide sinirsel ve davran\u0131\u015fsal s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin nas\u0131l geli\u015fti\u011fine ili\u015fkin teorilerin, her evrimsel a\u015famada ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan de\u011fi\u015fim ve uyumlarla uyumlu olacak \u015fekilde giderek ayr\u0131nt\u0131land\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7erir (bkz. Cisek, 2019). Bu nedenle, burada dikkat kavram\u0131ndan bir s\u00fcreli\u011fine uzakla\u015f\u0131p Homo sapiens\u2019e, yani insana giden soy hatt\u0131nda ilgili sinirsel devrelerin nas\u0131l evrimle\u015fti\u011fine dair k\u0131sa bir tarihsel inceleme yap\u0131yoruz.<\/strong> Her ne kadar evrimde belirli bir de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fin neden ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilmek \u00e7o\u011fu zaman g\u00fc\u00e7 olsa da hangi de\u011fi\u015fikliklerin hangi s\u0131rayla ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fini ortaya koymak, kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 ve geli\u015fimsel verilerin zenginli\u011fine dayan\u0131r. Bu da sinirsel devrelerin ve davran\u0131\u015fsal yetilerin nas\u0131l birlikte evrimle\u015fti\u011fine ili\u015fkin g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve test edilebilir hipotezler \u00fcretmeyi m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131lar.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Primat soy hatt\u0131ndaki mek\u00e2nsal etkile\u015fim, uzun ve karma\u015f\u0131k bir evrimsel s\u00fcre\u00e7le \u015fekillenmi\u015ftir (\u015eekil 1). Yakla\u015f\u0131k 500 milyon y\u0131l \u00f6nce Kambriyen d\u00f6neminde<\/strong> (Cambrian epoch) g\u00f6rsel rehberli y\u00f6nelim davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 \u00f6nemli bir ad\u0131m olmu\u015ftur.<\/strong> \u0130lkel kordal\u0131 atalar\u0131m\u0131z, tek bir fotosensitif yama (photosensitive patch) arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla orta beyne (tektum) projeksiyon yapan ve omurili\u011fe ba\u011flanarak<\/strong> ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f tepkilerini tetikleyen basit bir g\u00f6rsel ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f devresine sahipti<\/strong> (Lacalli, 1996, 2018). Omurgal\u0131 soy hatt\u0131nda, fotosensitif yama ba\u015f\u0131n iki yan\u0131na, iki farkl\u0131 g\u00f6z yamas\u0131 olacak \u015fekilde ayr\u0131ld\u0131 (Butler, 2000). G\u00f6z yamalar\u0131, kar\u015f\u0131 taraftaki tektuma projeksiyon yap\u0131yor ve tektum ise ayn\u0131 taraf omurili\u011fine ba\u011flant\u0131 sa\u011fl\u0131yordu. Bu sinirsel devre, atalar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n yakla\u015fan avc\u0131lardan uzakla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan reflekse dayal\u0131 ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f hareketlerini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131ld\u0131<\/strong> (\u015eekil 2a). G\u00f6z yamalar\u0131 geni\u015fledik\u00e7e, kubbe \u015feklini alarak lensi olu\u015fturdu ve b\u00f6ylece d\u0131\u015f uyaranlar\u0131n topografik haritalamas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan iki boyutlu bir retina ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131<\/strong> (Lamb, 2013). Tektum da paralel olarak geni\u015fledi; y\u00fczeysel katmanlar\u0131nda \u00fc\u00e7 boyutlu topografik bir harita olu\u015furken, derin katmanlarda ise projeksiyon gradyanlar\u0131 (gradients of downstream projections) olu\u015fturdu. Sonu\u00e7 olarak, belirli konumlardaki tehdit uyaranlar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00f6nelimli ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f tepkilerini temsil eden bir \u201ceylem haritas\u0131\u201d (action map) olu\u015ftu.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
\u015eekil 1.<\/strong> \u0130nsanlara giden soy hatt\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6zel olarak vurgulayan, bilateral simetrili hayvanlar\u0131n sadele\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir filogenetik a\u011fac\u0131. Dallanma noktalar\u0131, farkl\u0131 soy hatlar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki baz\u0131 ayr\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 temsil eder ve zamanlamalar molek\u00fcler saat analizlerine dayanarak tahmin edilmi\u015ftir (Erwin ve ark., 2011). Kal\u0131n \u00e7izgiler, ilgili fosil verilerinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir (paleobiodb.org). K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck dikd\u00f6rtgenler, kutularda belirtilen yeniliklerin tahmini en ge\u00e7 zaman\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. A\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131k i\u00e7in bir\u00e7ok dallanma noktas\u0131 ve soy hatt\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sa\u011f taraftaki siluetler phylopic.org\u2019dan al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

At nal\u0131 bal\u0131\u011f\u0131 (lamprey) \u00e7enesiz bir bal\u0131k olup, atalar\u0131m\u0131zdan yakla\u015f\u0131k 550 milyon y\u0131l \u00f6nce ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu bal\u0131klar \u00fczerinde yap\u0131lan mikrostimulasyon (microstimulation) \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131, tektumlar\u0131nda y\u00f6nelimli ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f tepkilerinin organize bir haritas\u0131n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ortaya koymaktad\u0131r<\/strong> (Saitoh, Menard ve Grillner, 2007). Bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar ayr\u0131ca tektumun \u00f6n (rostral) b\u00f6lgesinde yer alan ba\u015fka bir eylem haritas\u0131n\u0131n da varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. Bu harita, hayvan\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcndeki mek\u00e2na duyarl\u0131d\u0131r ve \u00e7o\u011funlukla kar\u015f\u0131 taraf omurili\u011fe projeksiyon yapar; b\u00f6ylece y\u00f6nelim ve yakla\u015fma davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 y\u00f6nlendirmektedir (Jones, Grillner, ve Robertson, 2009; Kardamakis, Saitoh, ve Grillner, 2015). Tektumun bu b\u00f6lgesi, dikkat ve se\u00e7ilim a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan kritik \u00f6neme sahiptir. Ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f devresinde (avoidance circuit), birden fazla uyaran birden fazla ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f hareketini tetikleyebilir ve bu hareketlerin ortalamas\u0131 al\u0131narak uygun bir ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 olu\u015fturabilir (\u015eekil 2b). \u00d6te yandan, yakla\u015fma devresinde (approach circuit) ortalama almak i\u015fe yaramaz \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc iki uyaran\u0131n ortalama yan\u0131t\u0131, hayvan\u0131n her ikisini de g\u00f6zden ka\u00e7\u0131rmas\u0131na neden olur<\/strong> (\u015eekil 2c). Bu nedenle, yakla\u015fma devresinde bir eylem di\u011ferini tamamen bast\u0131racak \u015fekilde se\u00e7im yap\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu se\u00e7im, yanal inhibisyon mekanizmalar\u0131 arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla \u201ckazanan hepsini al\u0131r\u201d tarz\u0131 bir dinamikle<\/strong> (\u201cwinner-take-all\u201d dynamics) ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilebilir<\/strong> (Grossberg, 1973; Mysore ve Knudsen, 2011; Wang, 2002).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

“\u00d6te yandan, yakla\u015fma devresinde (approach circuit) ortalama almak i\u015fe yaramaz \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc iki uyaran\u0131n ortalama yan\u0131t\u0131, hayvan\u0131n her ikisini de g\u00f6zden ka\u00e7\u0131rmas\u0131na neden olur.”<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
\u015eekil 2.<\/strong> Erken d\u00f6nem bir omurgal\u0131da ka\u00e7\u0131nma ve yakla\u015fma devreleri.
(a) Ka\u00e7\u0131nma devresinde, yanal g\u00f6zlerden gelen g\u00f6rsel bilgi kar\u015f\u0131 taraftaki tektuma ula\u015f\u0131r ve buradan ayn\u0131 taraftaki orta beyin hareket b\u00f6lgelerine iletilir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, bir uyaran sol g\u00f6ze d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde, hareket sa\u011fa do\u011fru y\u00f6nelir ve bu y\u00f6nelim, uyar\u0131m dengelenene kadar s\u00fcrer; b\u00f6ylece organizman\u0131n bedeni uyarandan uza\u011fa \u00e7evrilmi\u015f olur.
(b) \u0130ki tehdit edici uyarandan (siyah y\u0131ld\u0131zlar) uzakla\u015fma y\u00f6nlerinin (numaral\u0131 oklar) mek\u00e2nsal ortalamas\u0131, etkili bir ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f tepkisi \u00fcretir.
(c) Yakla\u015fma davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131nda ise mek\u00e2nsal ortalama i\u015flevsizdir; bu nedenle \u201ckazanan hepsini al\u0131r\u201d (winner-take-all) prensibi gereklidir.
B ve C panelleri, Cisek (2019)\u2019dan izin al\u0131narak yeniden kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Peki, t\u00fcm bunlar dikkat ile nas\u0131l ili\u015fkilidir? Giri\u015fte al\u0131nt\u0131lad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00fcnl\u00fc ifadeden sadece birka\u00e7 c\u00fcmle sonra<\/strong> James, dikkatin \u201cbir \u015feylerden geri \u00e7ekilmeyi (withdrawal) ve b\u00f6ylece di\u011fer \u015feylerle etkili bir \u015fekilde ilgilenmeyi i\u00e7erdi\u011fini\u201d yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r<\/strong>. Baz\u0131 uyaranlardan geri \u00e7ekilme ve ba\u015fka bir uyaranla etkile\u015fime girme s\u00fcreci, ger\u00e7ekten de \u00f6n (rostral) tektumun yakla\u015fma devresi i\u00e7erisinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fir.<\/strong> Bu basit devreler, insanlardaki daha y\u00fcksek d\u00fczey bili\u015ften olduk\u00e7a uzak g\u00f6r\u00fcnse de asl\u0131nda \u201cse\u00e7ici dikkat\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan mekanizmalar\u0131 kontrol eden sistemlerin \u00f6nc\u00fclleridir.<\/strong> Tektum, insan beynindeki superior kollikulus ile homolog bir yap\u0131d\u0131r. Superior kollikulus\u2019un, hem g\u00f6z ve ba\u015f hareketleriyle bak\u0131\u015f y\u00f6nelimini d\u00fczenlemede hem de bak\u0131\u015f sabitken \u00f6rt\u00fck dikkati (covert attention) kontrol etmede kritik rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir (Basso ve May, 2017). Soy hatt\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n Kambriyen\u2019in erken d\u00f6nemlerinde minogillerden (lamprey) ayr\u0131lmas\u0131ndan bu yana merkezi sinir sistemi ve \u00e7evresel ko\u015fullar \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015f olsa da tektumun yakla\u015fma ve ka\u00e7\u0131nma devreleri hem bal\u0131klarda<\/strong> (Herrero, Rodriguez, Salas, ve Torres, 1998) hem de memelilerde<\/strong> (Comoli ve ark., 2012) korunmu\u015ftur.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zamanla atalar\u0131m\u0131z denizlerden ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve bunlar\u0131n bir k\u0131sm\u0131 olan amniyotlar, tamamen karasal bir ya\u015fam bi\u00e7imine uyum sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu uyum s\u00fcreci, koku, g\u00f6rsel ve dokunsal bilgileri b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftiren ve zamanla serebral korteksi (cerebral cortex) olu\u015fturacak olan telensefalik palliumun (telencephalic pallium) geni\u015flemesi ve katmanla\u015fmas\u0131 ile e\u015f zamanl\u0131 ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir<\/strong> (Aboitiz ve Montiel, 2015; Striedter, 2005). T\u00fcm memelilerde neokorteks, uzamsal olarak topografik \u00f6zellik g\u00f6steren dorsomedial b\u00f6l\u00fcm (dorsomedial sector) ve topografik olmayan ventrolateral b\u00f6l\u00fcm (ventrolateral sector) olmak \u00fczere iki tabakadan olu\u015fur<\/strong> (Finlay ve Uchiyama, 2015). Primatlarda dorsomedial b\u00f6l\u00fcm, medial ve dorsolateral prefrontal korteks, singulat b\u00f6lgeler, t\u00fcm premotor, motor, duyusal-motor ve parietal korteksin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra retrosplenial korteksi kapsar. Ventrolateral b\u00f6l\u00fcm ise lateral prefrontal korteksin baz\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerini, orbitofrontal korteksi ve t\u00fcm limbik korteks ile temporal lobu i\u00e7erir. Dikkat a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00f6zellikle \u00f6nemli olan b\u00f6lge dorsomedial neokortekstir. Bu yap\u0131, t\u00fcrlere \u00f6zg\u00fc eylem s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n\u0131 desteklemek \u00fczere organize olmu\u015f bir dizi fronto-parietal devre i\u00e7erir<\/strong> (Graziano, 2016; Kaas ve Stepniewska, 2016).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yakla\u015f\u0131k 300 milyon y\u0131l \u00f6nce ya\u015fayan erken memelilerde bu sistem b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla ilkel bir yap\u0131dayd\u0131 ve yaln\u0131zca, lokomosyonla\/hareketle (locomotion) ili\u015fkili medial devreler ile ba\u015f ve a\u011f\u0131z hareketleriyle ili\u015fkili lateral devrelerden olu\u015fuyordu (Kaas, 2017). Bu devrelerin her biri, kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc bir bi\u00e7imde duyusal bilgiyi i\u015fliyor ve belli bir eylem t\u00fcr\u00fcne \u00f6zg\u00fc \u015fekilde uzmanla\u015f\u0131yordu (\u00f6rne\u011fin, lokomosyon\/hareket i\u00e7in bacaklar\u0131n \u00e7evresindeki alan, beslenme i\u00e7in burnun \u00e7evresindeki alan). Ayr\u0131ca her devre, kendi isleyi\u015fine uygun belirli efekt\u00f6r gruplar\u0131na (a specific set of relevant effectors) sinyal g\u00f6nderiyordu. Bir bak\u0131ma, her bir devre yakla\u015fma ve ka\u00e7\u0131nmada rol oynayan daha eski tektal sistemlere benzer bir \u201ceylem haritas\u0131\u201d (action map) niteli\u011findeydi. Ne var ki bu haritalar, memelilerin ekolojik ko\u015fullar\u0131nda mevcut olan \u00e7ok daha geni\u015f bir g\u00f6rev yelpazesini y\u00f6nlendiriyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Memelilerin davran\u0131\u015f \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi artt\u0131k\u00e7a dorsomedial neokortekste de geni\u015fleme oldu; bu da eyleme-\u00f6zg\u00fc duyusal mek\u00e2n haritalar\u0131n\u0131n farkl\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 beraberinde getirdi.<\/strong> Primatlarda parietal korteksin geni\u015flemesi \u00f6zellikle \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 olmu\u015f ve farkl\u0131 eylem t\u00fcrlerinin gereksinimlerine \u00f6zg\u00fc \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00f6zg\u00fcn mek\u00e2n temsilleri ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r<\/strong> (Andersen, Snyder, Bradley ve Xing, 1997; Stein, 1992) (bkz. \u015eekil 3). \u00d6rne\u011fin, g\u00f6rsel girdilerle y\u00f6nlendirilen uzanma davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 medial intraparietal korteks taraf\u0131ndan kodlan\u0131r (Cui ve Andersen, 2007; Kalaska ve Crammond, 1995). Bu b\u00f6lge, eri\u015filebilir mesafedeki hedefleri bak\u0131\u015f y\u00f6n\u00fc ve elin pozisyonuna g\u00f6re kodlayarak temsil eder (Buneo, Jarvis, Batista ve Andersen, 2002; Gallivan, Cavina-Pratesi ve Culham, 2009). Ayr\u0131ca uzanmay\u0131 y\u00f6neten frontal devrelerle, \u00f6zellikle dorsal premotor korteksle de ba\u011flant\u0131lar kurar (Johnson et al., 1996; Wise, Boussaoud, Johnson ve Caminiti, 1997). Kavrama eyleminin kontrol\u00fcnde anterior intraparietal alan \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar<\/strong> (Baumann, Fluet, ve Scherberger, 2009). Bu alan, nesne \u015fekline duyarl\u0131d\u0131r ve ventral premotor korteks gibi kavramaya \u00f6zg\u00fc frontal b\u00f6lgelerle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r<\/strong> (Nakamura, 2001; Rizzolatti ve Luppino, 2001). Bak\u0131\u015f y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fcn kontrol\u00fc ise lateral intraparietal alan taraf\u0131ndan sa\u011flan\u0131r (Snyder, Batista, & Andersen, 2000). Bu alan ise g\u00f6rsel mek\u00e2n\u0131 g\u00f6z retinas\u0131na g\u00f6re (retinotopic frame) temsil eder (Colby ve Duhamel, 1996; Snyder, Grieve, Brotchie ve Andersen, 1998) ve frontal g\u00f6z alanlar\u0131 ile superior kollikulus gibi bak\u0131\u015f kontrol\u00fcnden sorumlu yap\u0131larla etkile\u015fim halindedir (Par\u00e9 ve Wurtz, 2001). B\u00f6ylece, k\u00f6keni Kambriyen \u00e7a\u011f\u0131ndaki tektal y\u00f6nelim devrelerine dayanan eski bir evrimsel mekanizma yeniden devreye girer.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/a>
\u015eekil 3.<\/strong> Primat beyin korteksi, dorsomedial b\u00f6lgelerde (mavi oklar) birbirine paralel bir dizi sens\u00f6rimotor ak\u0131\u015f i\u00e7erir. Bu b\u00f6lgelerin her biri, uzamsal temsil bi\u00e7imlerine dayal\u0131 olarak, belirli bir eylem t\u00fcr\u00fcne arac\u0131l\u0131k eder. Ayr\u0131ca ventrolateral b\u00f6lgelerde (k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 oklar) hesaplanan nesne kimli\u011fi ve sonu\u00e7 de\u011feri bilgilerini kullanarak mevcut davran\u0131\u015fsal ba\u011flamda en uygun eylemleri se\u00e7er. K\u0131saltmalar: AIP (anterior intraparietal alan), FEF (frontal g\u00f6z alanlar\u0131), IT (inferotemporal korteks), LIP (lateral intraparietal alan), LPFC (lateral prefrontal korteks), MIP (medial intraparietal alan), OFC (orbitofrontal korteks), PMd (dorsal premotor korteks), PMv (ventral premotor korteks), V1 (birincil g\u00f6rsel korteks).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u00c7o\u011fu durumda, farkl\u0131 fronto-parietal eylem ak\u0131\u015flar\u0131 birbirleriyle rekabet eder.<\/strong> \u00d6rne\u011fin, bir canl\u0131n\u0131n bir a\u011fac\u0131n k\u00f6klerini kazmak ya da bunun yerine ba\u015fka bir a\u011faca do\u011fru y\u00fcr\u00fcmek aras\u0131nda \u201chepsi ya da hi\u00e7\u201d (all-or-none decision) \u015feklinde bir karar vermesi gerekebilir.<\/strong> Ancak di\u011fer baz\u0131 durumlarda, farkl\u0131 fronto-parietal diziler e\u015f g\u00fcd\u00fcml\u00fc\/koordine hale gelir.<\/strong> \u00d6rne\u011fin, bir ba\u015f\/burun y\u00f6nelimi sistemi bir hedefi i\u015faret etti\u011finde, o hedef art\u0131k kazma veya \u0131s\u0131rma gibi di\u011fer davran\u0131\u015flar i\u00e7in kullan\u0131labilir hale gelir. Bu kullan\u0131labilirlik \u00f6zelli\u011fi, a\u011fa\u00e7 t\u0131rman\u0131c\u0131 b\u00f6cek yiyicilerden evrimle\u015fen, merkezde y\u00fcksek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u00fckl\u00fc bir fovea (g\u00f6rme \u00e7ukuru) bulunan b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00f6zler geli\u015ftiren ve meyve yeme al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 edinen primatlar i\u00e7in \u00f6zellikle \u00f6nem kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu t\u00fcr hayvanlarda bak\u0131\u015f y\u00f6nelimini kontrol eden sistem, di\u011fer bir\u00e7ok g\u00f6rsel rehberli davran\u0131\u015f i\u00e7in bir y\u00f6netici rol (executive role) \u00fcstlenir.<\/strong> Bak\u0131\u015f i\u00e7in bir hedef se\u00e7mek, neye uzan\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 veya t\u0131rmanmak i\u00e7in hangi dal\u0131n kavranaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 se\u00e7menin bir par\u00e7as\u0131 haline gelir.<\/strong> Bu sistem, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u201cse\u00e7ici dikkat\u201de atfedilen rol\u00fcn b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 yerine getirir.<\/strong> Nitekim hem a\u00e7\u0131k\/overt hem de \u00f6rt\u00fck\/covert se\u00e7ici dikkatin, bak\u0131\u015f y\u00f6nelimi sistemiyle yak\u0131ndan ili\u015fkili oldu\u011fu ve ayn\u0131 sinirsel yap\u0131lar\u0131 i\u00e7erdi\u011fi uzun s\u00fcredir bilinmektedir<\/strong> (Corbetta ve ark., 1998; Rizzolatti ve ark., 1987). Bu yap\u0131lar aras\u0131nda arka parietal korteks, frontal g\u00f6z alanlar\u0131 ve superior kollikulus yer al\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu k\u0131sa primat evreni yolculu\u011fu bizi yine se\u00e7ici dikkate ve posterior parietal kortekse getirmi\u015f oldu, ancak bu kez her ikisine de farkl\u0131 bir perspektiften bak\u0131yoruz. Sorun, posterior parietal korteksin \u201cdikkat\u201d ad\u0131 verilen bir s\u00fcre\u00e7te mi yoksa \u201cniyet\u201d ad\u0131 verilen ba\u015fka bir s\u00fcre\u00e7te mi rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 de\u011fildir.<\/strong> Art\u0131k esas soru, bu yap\u0131n\u0131n, hayvanlar\u0131n hedeflerine ula\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 ve olumsuz sonu\u00e7lardan ka\u00e7\u0131nmalar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flamak i\u00e7in \u00e7evreleriyle olan etkile\u015fimleri se\u00e7melerine ve kontrol etmelerine olanak tan\u0131yan daha geni\u015f bir sistem i\u00e7inde nas\u0131l bir yer edindi\u011fidir.<\/strong> Filogenetik a\u00e7\u0131dan bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, primatlar\u0131n posterior parietal korteksin, nesnelere y\u00f6nelik g\u00f6rsel etkile\u015fimleri y\u00f6neten topografik dorsomedial neokortikal sistemin bir par\u00e7as\u0131d\u0131r (Cisek, 2007). Bu sistem, paralel duyu-motor diziler (parallel sensorimotor streams) halinde organize olmu\u015ftur.<\/strong> Her bir dizi, hayvan\u0131n davran\u0131\u015fsal da\u011farc\u0131\u011f\u0131ndaki belirli bir eylem t\u00fcr\u00fcne katk\u0131da bulunur ve bunlar\u0131n etkinli\u011fi, bazal gangliyonlar ve di\u011fer yap\u0131lardan gelen se\u00e7ici te\u015fvik (selective invigoration), enerji sa\u011flama (energization) veya motivasyon (drive) mekanizmalar\u0131yla d\u00fczenlenir (Cisek ve Thura, 2018; Grillner, Robertson ve Stephenson-Jones, 2013). Bu fronto-parietal eylem dizilerinin her birinde hedef se\u00e7imi, \u201ckazanan hepsini al\u0131r\u201d (winner-take-all) dinami\u011finde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fir. <\/strong>Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, her bir eylem t\u00fcr\u00fc i\u00e7in \u00f6zg\u00fcl olan, kendine has bir mek\u00e2nsal referans \u00e7er\u00e7evesi i\u00e7inde (\u00f6rne\u011fin, g\u00f6z hareketleri i\u00e7in retinotopik, yani g\u00f6z retinas\u0131na g\u00f6re) meydana gelir. Bu dizilerden biri, g\u00f6z ve ba\u015f hareketleri yoluyla bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 y\u00f6nlendirmekle ilgilidir ve di\u011fer bir\u00e7ok dizinin, foveadan sa\u011flanan y\u00fcksek \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u00fckl\u00fc g\u00f6rsel bilgiye dayanmas\u0131 nedeniyle bir y\u00f6netici rol (executive role) \u00fcstlenmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir. Bir hayvan\u0131n (insanlar da bu kategoriye dahil) laboratuvar ko\u015fullar\u0131nda karma\u015f\u0131k do\u011fal davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n yaln\u0131zca tek bir bile\u015fenini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirme talimat\u0131 ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 varsayal\u0131m. Posterior parietal kortekste g\u00f6zlemlenen etkinlik, deneysel olarak manip\u00fcle edilen belirli g\u00f6rev de\u011fi\u015fkenlerine ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak, ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131n\u0131n \u201cdikkat\u201d, \u201cniyet\u201d veya \u201ckarar verme\u201d olarak tan\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015feyle ili\u015fkili gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr. Ancak, bu ili\u015fkilerden (correlations) yola \u00e7\u0131karak beyinde ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bir \u201cdikkat sistemi\u201d (veya benzer \u015fekilde bir \u201cniyet sistemi\u201d ya da \u201ckarar sistemi\u201d) var oldu\u011fu sonucu \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lamaz.<\/strong> Buradaki kilit \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131m \u015fudur: Posterior parietal korteks, bir \u201cdikkat sistemi\u201dnin par\u00e7as\u0131 de\u011fildir. Tam tersine se\u00e7ici dikkat, posterior parietal korteksin as\u0131l i\u015flevi olan hedefe y\u00f6nelik eylemleri y\u00f6netme s\u00fcrecinin do\u011fal bir \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

“Posterior parietal korteks, bir \u201cdikkat sistemi\u201dnin par\u00e7as\u0131 de\u011fildir. Tam tersine se\u00e7ici dikkat, posterior parietal korteksin as\u0131l i\u015flevi olan hedefe y\u00f6nelik eylemleri y\u00f6netme s\u00fcrecinin do\u011fal bir \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr.”<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

6. \u00d6zet ve Sonu\u00e7lar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Sonu\u00e7 olarak, se\u00e7icili\u011fin evrim boyunca, hedefe y\u00f6nelik eylemlerin verimli bir \u015fekilde y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclmesini sa\u011flamak amac\u0131yla ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan bir tasar\u0131m \u00f6zelli\u011fi olarak geli\u015fti\u011fini s\u00f6yleyebiliriz.<\/strong> \u0130nsana uzanan organizma soyunun eylem da\u011farc\u0131\u011f\u0131 geni\u015fledik\u00e7e, bu t\u00fcr bir se\u00e7icilik gerekli hale gelmi\u015ftir. Bu durum, se\u00e7icili\u011fin altta yatan say\u0131s\u0131z s\u00fcre\u00e7ten do\u011fan bir ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan \u00f6zellik oldu\u011fu anlam\u0131na gelir.<\/strong> \u0130nsanlar\u0131n (ve se\u00e7ici dikkat g\u00f6steren di\u011fer t\u00fcrlerin) evrimle\u015fme bi\u00e7iminin basit bir ger\u00e7e\u011fidir; se\u00e7ici dikkat, \u201cse\u00e7ici niyet\u201d ve \u201cse\u00e7ici karar verme\u201d ile birlikte, bu s\u00fcrecin bir\u00e7ok yan \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcnden yaln\u0131zca biridir.<\/strong> Bu yaz\u0131da a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak superior kollikulus ve parietal korteksteki se\u00e7im mekanizmalar\u0131n\u0131 vurgulad\u0131k, ancak benzer arg\u00fcmanlar di\u011fer beyin b\u00f6lgelerindeki di\u011fer se\u00e7im mekanizmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in de ge\u00e7erlidir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Krauzlis ve arkada\u015flar\u0131 (2014), baz\u0131 \u201cdikkat\u201d olgular\u0131n\u0131n, bazal gangliyonlar\u0131n de\u011fer temelli se\u00e7im mekanizmalar\u0131n\u0131n bir \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olabilece\u011fini \u00f6ne s\u00fcrmektedir. E\u011fer se\u00e7icilik, davran\u0131\u015f da\u011farc\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n say\u0131ca ve karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k bak\u0131m\u0131ndan (\u00f6rne\u011fin ka\u00e7\u0131nma, yakla\u015fma, sakkad, yeme, uzanma, kavrama ve alet kullanma) artmas\u0131yla evrimle\u015fen bir tasar\u0131m \u00f6zelli\u011fi ise, davran\u0131\u015fsal se\u00e7imi tek bir \u00f6zelle\u015fmi\u015f sinirsel veya i\u015flevsel sistemle a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak yetersiz kalmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Bizce, dikkat ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131nda se\u00e7ici dikkatin ger\u00e7ek k\u00f6kenleri ve s\u00fcre\u00e7leri hakk\u0131nda bu kadar \u00e7ok uzun soluklu ve olduk\u00e7a verimsiz tart\u0131\u015fman\u0131n ya\u015fanmas\u0131n\u0131n nedeni de budur.<\/strong> Bu tart\u0131\u015fmalar genellikle ikili (binary) bir nitelik ta\u015f\u0131r; \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc tek bir neden veya merkezi bir sistemin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 varsay\u0131m\u0131yla ba\u015flar. Bu tek neden, ek ara\u015ft\u0131rma bulgular\u0131yla giderek daha fazla sorgulan\u0131r, genellikle z\u0131t bir ba\u015fka neden ortaya at\u0131l\u0131r ve b\u00f6ylece tart\u0131\u015fmalar devam eder. Bizim \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcm\u00fcz, bu tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n hi\u00e7bir zaman sona ermeyece\u011fi y\u00f6n\u00fcndedir. Bunun nedeni, se\u00e7icilik evrim boyunca pek \u00e7ok fakt\u00f6r\u00fcn etkile\u015fiminden do\u011fan bir \u00f6zellik oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in, t\u00fcm taraflar\u0131n savunucular\u0131n\u0131n bir \u015fekilde ve baz\u0131 durumlarda hakl\u0131 olabilece\u011fidir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yine de bu tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n alan\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 daha ileri ta\u015f\u0131mad\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve \u201cdikkat olgular\u0131n\u0131n\u201d nas\u0131l olu\u015ftu\u011funa dair anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 ger\u00e7ekten derinle\u015ftirmedi\u011fine kesinlikle inan\u0131yoruz.<\/strong> Analitik yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmek ve t\u00fcm bu bulgular\u0131 tek bir kavram olan \u201cdikkat\u201d ile a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak (yani tek bir a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fken olarak kullanmak) sorun yaratacakt\u0131r.<\/strong> Dikkat kavram\u0131 ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak o kadar \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 bulguya yay\u0131l\u0131r ki, sonunda ampirik bir a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kalmayacak kadar belirsiz hale gelir.<\/strong> Ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar\u0131n bunlar\u0131 \u00e7ok say\u0131da a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131 gereken olgu (explananda) olarak ele almalar\u0131 do\u011fru olsa da yaln\u0131zca tek bir a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 ilke aramak ya da bunu zorunlu k\u0131lmak yanl\u0131\u015f olur. Bunun yerine, m\u00fcmk\u00fcn oldu\u011funca, ilgili temel mekanizma ve s\u00fcre\u00e7leri belirlemeye ve her birini ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak gerekir.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bilimsel analitik yakla\u015f\u0131mda, ortaya at\u0131lm\u0131\u015f kavramlar\u0131n esiri olma riski vard\u0131r.<\/strong> Bir\u00e7ok ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131, \u201cdikkat\u201d, \u201cniyet\u201d ve \u201ckarar verme\u201d gibi kavramlar\u0131 g\u00fcnl\u00fck dilden al\u0131r ve bu dilsel kategorilerin bir \u015fekilde beyindeki tan\u0131mlanabilir mekanizmalara veya i\u015flevlere kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelmesini bekler.<\/strong> Oysa ger\u00e7ek sinirsel i\u015flevlere bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda net bir ayr\u0131m yoktur, yaln\u0131zca sonunda se\u00e7icili\u011fi ortaya \u00e7\u0131karan bir dizi etkile\u015fen s\u00fcre\u00e7 vard\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7ler, \u00f6zel bir sisteme ait olduklar\u0131 i\u00e7in de\u011fil, insan beyni ve v\u00fccudu bu \u015fekilde evrimle\u015fti\u011fi ve se\u00e7icili\u011fin etkin davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 sa\u011flamak i\u00e7in gerekli bir \u00f6zellik oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in etkile\u015fir.<\/strong> Dahas\u0131, bir bireyin ya\u015fam\u0131 boyunca (uzak ve yak\u0131n ge\u00e7mi\u015fte) yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 her \u015fey, se\u00e7imi yarat\u0131r, peki\u015ftirir ve \u015fekillendirir. \u00d6rne\u011fin sola d\u00f6nmek, sa\u011fdaki uyaranlar\u0131 g\u00f6rmezden gelmemize neden olur; bir elmay\u0131 se\u00e7mek, di\u011ferlerini g\u00f6zden ka\u00e7\u0131rmam\u0131za yol a\u00e7ar; bir kelime s\u00f6ylemek, ba\u015fka bir kelime s\u00f6ylememizi engeller. Her bir se\u00e7im, pozitif kazan\u00e7lardan negatif kay\u0131plara kadar farkl\u0131 \u015fekillerde sonu\u00e7lan\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla se\u00e7im ve \u00f6d\u00fcl, ya\u015famlar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n ve ya\u015fam tarz\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n ayr\u0131lmaz par\u00e7alar\u0131d\u0131r<\/strong> (Allport, 1987).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

“Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla se\u00e7im ve \u00f6d\u00fcl, ya\u015famlar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n ve ya\u015fam tarz\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n ayr\u0131lmaz par\u00e7alar\u0131d\u0131r (Allport, 1987).”<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Se\u00e7ici davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 i\u00e7in, birbiriyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 \u00e7ok say\u0131da s\u00fcre\u00e7, \u00e7e\u015fitli bilgi kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015ftirir. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin farkl\u0131 zaman \u00e7er\u00e7evelerinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesi \u00f6nemli bir zorlu\u011fu meydana getirir (\u00f6rn. Chapman ve ark., 2015b; Welsh, Neyedli, ve Tremblay, 2013). Bu nedenle, bir laboratuvar ortam\u0131nda, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7ler yaln\u0131zca se\u00e7im i\u015flemi s\u0131ras\u0131nda yaln\u0131zca tek bir noktada veya anl\u0131k olarak g\u00f6zlemlendi\u011finde, yap\u0131lan g\u00f6zlem \u201cdikkat,\u201d \u201cniyet\u201d veya \u201ckarar verme ve \u00f6d\u00fcl\u201d olarak yorumlanabilir.<\/strong> Burada \u00f6nerilen sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131m, \u00f6d\u00fcl ve se\u00e7im ge\u00e7mi\u015finin i\u00e7 i\u00e7e ge\u00e7mi\u015f konular oldu\u011funu a\u00e7\u0131k bir \u015fekilde ortaya koyarken, muhtemelen hedef odakl\u0131 davran\u0131\u015fa katk\u0131da bulunan \u00e7oklu s\u00fcre\u00e7leri de yans\u0131t\u0131r.<\/strong> \u00d6rne\u011fin, sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131m zarardan ka\u00e7\u0131nma davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 da a\u00e7\u0131klayabilir. Bu a\u00e7\u0131klamaya g\u00f6re zararl\u0131 uyaranlar tespit edilmek \u00fczere \u00f6ncelikli i\u015fleme al\u0131nmal\u0131 ve b\u00f6ylece organizma bu uyaranlardan uzakla\u015fmal\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6d\u00fcl\/yakla\u015fma ve zarar\/ka\u00e7\u0131nma s\u00fcre\u00e7lerine y\u00f6nelik ilkel sinir devreleri, evrimsel tarihin erken d\u00f6nemlerinde birbirinden ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve bu da olumlu ve olumsuz de\u011fer i\u00e7erikli uyaranlara ili\u015fkin farkl\u0131 bulgulara y\u00f6nelik s\u00fcre\u00e7 temelli bir a\u00e7\u0131klama sunar.<\/strong> Benzer \u015fekilde sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131m, nesnelerin farkl\u0131 \u00f6zelliklerine olan duyarl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n neden eylem ba\u011flam\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011funu da a\u00e7\u0131klar<\/strong> (Bekkering ve Neggers, 2002; Craighero ve ark., 1999; Fagioli ve ark., 2007; Welsh ve Pratt, 2008). Bu yakla\u015f\u0131ma g\u00f6re ba\u011flam, eylem merkezli parietal dizilerden hangisinin belirli bir anda se\u00e7ici olarak g\u00fc\u00e7lendirildi\u011fini kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc d\u0131\u015f d\u00fcnya temsiliyle belirler.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Deneysel psikoloji ve sinirbilimin en b\u00fcy\u00fck bilmecelerinden biri, bu bilgi ak\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7taki duyusal alanlardan nas\u0131l dallan\u0131p ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve ard\u0131ndan eyleme d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmek \u00fczere nas\u0131l birle\u015fti\u011fidir. Davran\u0131\u015fa dayal\u0131 g\u00f6zlemler sayesinde genellikle ayn\u0131 anda yaln\u0131zca bir hedefe y\u00f6nelik hareket ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi\u011fi, ancak birden fazlas\u0131n\u0131n e\u015fzamanl\u0131 olarak temsil edilebilece\u011fi bilinmektedir (\u00f6rn. Cisek ve Kalaska, 2005). Evrimsel adaptasyonlar b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde tart\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00fczere, her bir eylem sistemi i\u00e7in (\u00f6rne\u011fin el ve g\u00f6z hareketleriyle desteklenen eylemlerde) tek bir eylem olu\u015fturacak \u015fekilde \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme ula\u015fan, \u201ckazanan hepsini al\u0131r\u201d tarz\u0131 bir dinamikle (\u201cwinner-take-all\u201d dynamics) \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015fen paralel ve rekabet\u00e7i bir yap\u0131y\u0131 savunuyoruz.<\/strong> Elbette, bunun nas\u0131l ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fine dair detaylar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck k\u0131sm\u0131 hala a\u00e7\u0131klanmam\u0131\u015f ve bu makalenin kapsam\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndad\u0131r. Burada vurgulamak istedi\u011fimiz, karma\u015f\u0131k duyusal bilginin eyleme nas\u0131l d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc anlamam\u0131za yard\u0131mc\u0131 olan sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131md\u0131r. \u00c7\u0131karaca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z temel sonu\u00e7 ise \u201cdikkat\u201d gibi her \u015feye uydurulmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lan genel ge\u00e7er kavramlara ba\u015fvurman\u0131n veya onlar\u0131 uygulamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n bilimsel ilerlemeyi sekteye u\u011fratmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/strong> Bu nedenle, ki\u015finin \u201cfiziksel olarak belirgin bir uyarana daha fazla dikkat g\u00f6sterdi\u011fini\u201d s\u00f6ylemek yerine, fiziksel belirginli\u011fin nas\u0131l olup da daha etkili bilgi i\u015fleme ve davran\u0131\u015fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131klayan mekanizmay\u0131 anlamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak gerekir.<\/strong> Benzer \u015fekilde, \u00f6d\u00fcllendirici uyaranlar\u0131n \u201cdaha fazla dikkat gerektirdi\u011fini\u201d \u00f6ne s\u00fcrmek yerine, belirli bir \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fcn belirli bir hedefle nas\u0131l ili\u015fkilendirildi\u011fini ve bili\u015fsel sistemin\/beynin bu ili\u015fkiyi saniyenin \u00e7ok k\u0131sa bir diliminde nas\u0131l hat\u0131rlay\u0131p sonraki denemelerde davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 nas\u0131l y\u00f6nlendirdi\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131klamak gerekir.<\/strong> G\u00f6rsel bilgiyi eylem i\u00e7in se\u00e7ilen bir konumda sunuldu\u011funda neden ve nas\u0131l g\u00fc\u00e7lendi\u011fini deneylerle ortaya koymak, bulguyu \u201csadece dikkat\u201d olarak nitelendirmekten daha bilgilendiricidir. Bu nedenle, anla\u015f\u0131labilen mekanizmalara y\u00f6nelmek ve bili\u015fsel alanlarda ilgilenilen davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 yeniden olu\u015fturmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak gerekir.<\/strong> Bu yakla\u015f\u0131m ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olursa, hem a\u00e7\u0131klanacak olgu (explanandum) hem de a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 mekanizmay\u0131 (explanans) tan\u0131mlarken dikkat gibi tan\u0131ms\u0131z kavramlara gerek kalmayacakt\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6nerdi\u011fimiz sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131m indirgemeci gibi alg\u0131lanabilir, ancak bu yakla\u015f\u0131m sinirsel a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131 i\u015flevsel a\u00e7\u0131klamalara \u00fcst\u00fcn k\u0131lmamas\u0131yla \u00f6nem arz eder.<\/strong> Ger\u00e7ek bir bili\u015fsel sinirbilim, iyi teorilerin hem sinirsel hem de i\u015flevsel k\u0131s\u0131tlamalar\u0131 dikkate almas\u0131 gerekti\u011fi fikrine dayan\u0131r; b\u00f6ylece sinirsel ve i\u015flevsel teoriler birbiriyle \u00e7eli\u015fmez. Ayr\u0131ca sinirsel a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131n daha temel veya nedensel oldu\u011fu y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki e\u011filimleri de mant\u0131ksal olarak desteklemez. \u00d6rneklerimizin bir\u00e7o\u011fu sinirsel bulgu ve a\u00e7\u0131klamalara at\u0131fta bulunsa ve evrimsel muhakememiz a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak sinirsel terimlerle ifade edilmi\u015f olsa da sinirsel a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131n i\u015flevsel olanlara \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc savunmuyor ve her iki yakla\u015f\u0131mdan da kan\u0131tlar sunmaya \u00f6zen g\u00f6steriyoruz. \u00d6te yandan, bili\u015fsel psikoloji ve sinirbilim alanlar\u0131nda iyi teorilerin, g\u00f6zlemlenen bir olgunun (explanandum) alt\u0131nda yatan mekanizmalar (explanans) arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla nas\u0131l ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair test edilebilir hipotezlerden do\u011fdu\u011funu t\u00fcm\u00fcyle kabul ediyoruz.<\/strong> B\u00f6ylece bu mekanizmalar\u0131n sinirsel mi yoksa i\u015flevsel kavramlarla m\u0131 tan\u0131mland\u0131\u011f\u0131 ise ikinci planda kalmaktad\u0131r.<\/strong> Ana ak\u0131m\u0131n aksine sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131m, bir olguyu par\u00e7alara ay\u0131rmak yerine iyi anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f temel mekanizmalar \u00fczerinden onu yeniden in\u015fa etmeyi gerektirir.<\/strong> Bizim beklentimiz, bu sentetik\/yap\u0131land\u0131rmac\u0131 (constructivist) yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n nihayetinde, a\u00e7\u0131klamay\u0131 hedefledi\u011fimiz olgular\u0131 tan\u0131mlama bi\u00e7imlerimizin asl\u0131nda yan\u0131lt\u0131c\u0131 oldu\u011funu ortaya \u00e7\u0131karaca\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcndedir.<\/strong> \u00d6zellikle de dikkat kavram\u0131 i\u00e7in bunun ge\u00e7erli oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyoruz. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, James’in (1890) iddias\u0131n\u0131n aksine, hi\u00e7 kimsenin dikkatin tam olarak ne oldu\u011funu bilmedi\u011fini ve asla da bilemeyece\u011fini savunuyoruz.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

“Ana ak\u0131m\u0131n aksine sentetik yakla\u015f\u0131m, bir olguyu par\u00e7alara ay\u0131rmak yerine iyi anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f temel mekanizmalar \u00fczerinden onu yeniden in\u015fa etmeyi gerektirir.”<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Dipnotlar:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

[1]<\/a> William James\u2019in dikkat kavram\u0131na yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n esasen fenomenoloji ile ilgili oldu\u011funu belirtmek gerekir. Bu yakla\u015f\u0131ma, modern i\u015flevsel ve sinirsel yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131 ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z bu makalede daha fazla yer verilmeyecektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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