{"id":2081,"date":"2021-10-31T15:00:25","date_gmt":"2021-10-31T15:00:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/?post_type=blog_content&p=2081"},"modified":"2025-09-07T20:06:50","modified_gmt":"2025-09-07T20:06:50","slug":"gestalt-kurami-ve-bilissel-psikoloji-5-esra-mungan","status":"publish","type":"blog_content","link":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/en\/blog_content\/gestalt-kurami-ve-bilissel-psikoloji-5-esra-mungan\/","title":{"rendered":"Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 ve Bili\u015fsel Psikoloji 5 \u2014 Esra Mungan"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 ve Bili\u015fsel Psikoloji\u201d serisinin t\u00fcm yaz\u0131lar\u0131na buradan<\/a> eri\u015febilirsiniz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dr. Esra Mungan Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i \u00dcniversitesi Psikoloji B\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc\u2019nde \u00f6\u011fretim g\u00f6revlisi. Ba\u015fl\u0131ca \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma alan\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6zel bellek, m\u00fczik belle\u011fi ve m\u00fcziksel bili\u015f olu\u015fturuyor.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Preface<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Bili\u015fsel bilim do\u011fas\u0131 gere\u011fi bir\u00e7ok alan\u0131 bir araya getirmeyi vaad eden, bunu art\u0131k kli\u015fele\u015fmi\u015f olan alt\u0131gen diyagramla ifade eden bir bilim dal\u0131. Ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan bu yana yakla\u015f\u0131k 60 sene ge\u00e7mi\u015f olan bili\u015fsel bilimin bu farkl\u0131 alanlar\u0131 bir araya getirmek ve b\u00f6ylece zihni anlama yolunda b\u00fct\u00fcnc\u00fcl bir perspektif sa\u011flamak, hat\u0131r\u0131 say\u0131l\u0131r bir yol kat etmek gibi vaadlerini yerine getirip getirmedi\u011fi veyahut ne oranda yerine getirdi\u011fi \u015fiddeti giderek artan bir tart\u0131\u015fma konusu. Esra Mungan da \u00f6zellikle kendi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma alanlar\u0131ndan \u2013bellek, m\u00fczik bili\u015fi- hareketle bili\u015fsel bilimde y\u0131llard\u0131r binlerce ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na ra\u011fmen yol kat edilememesine yol a\u00e7an bir yanl\u0131\u015f, hem de temel bir yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu sezenlerden. Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 okumalarla bu sezgileri form\u00fclize edilmi\u015f bir fikirler b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcne d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fen Esra hoca bunlar\u0131 2020 ve 2021 boyunca Nesne dergisinde yay\u0131nlanm\u0131\u015f \u00fc\u00e7 makalesinde topluyor: \u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131: Bir Nazariyenin Mazisi, Akameti ve Ak\u0131beti,\u201d \u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n Az Bilinen \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131: Bellek,\u201d \u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n Problem \u00c7\u00f6zme \u00dczerine \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ve G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn Ge\u015ftalt\u0131.\u201d Esra Hoca\u2019n\u0131n Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019na e\u011fildi\u011fi, hakk\u0131nda \u201cbilinen\u201d pek \u00e7ok yanl\u0131\u015f\u0131 d\u00fczeltti\u011fi ve bug\u00fcn\u00fcn bili\u015fsel psikolojisine ve bili\u015fsel bilimine dair neler s\u00f6yledi\u011fini ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu makalelerini biz de alt\u0131 yaz\u0131l\u0131k bir yaz\u0131 dizisi halinde yay\u0131nl\u0131yoruz. B\u00f6ylelikle hem bili\u015fsel bilime dair metodolojik ve felsefi endi\u015feler hakk\u0131ndaki tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n, hem de T\u00fcrkiye bili\u015fsel bilim akademisindeki \u00fcretimin g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne katk\u0131 sa\u011flamay\u0131 umuyoruz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Keyifli okumalar,
CogIST<\/p>\n\n\n\n

5- D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme: Problem \u00c7\u00f6zme, \u201c\u00dcretken D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme,\u201d Yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6z<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Bu makalede Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u201c\u00fcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme\u201d diye ifade etti\u011fi problem \u00e7\u00f6zme alan\u0131ndaki \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7an iki ana \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131na yer verilecektir. Bunlardan biri, K\u00f6hler\u2019in, \u015fempanzelerin hedefli ara\u00e7 kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 ve engellerle ne \u015fekilde ba\u015fa \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 inceledi\u011fi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar, di\u011feri ise Duncker\u2019\u0131n sesli d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme tekni\u011fini kullanarak y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc problem \u00e7\u00f6zme \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131d\u0131r. Hem K\u00f6hler\u2019de hem Duncker\u2019da \u00fcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme, yeniden \u015fekillendirme davran\u0131\u015f\u0131yla ili\u015fkilendirilir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, bir a\u011fac\u0131n uzun, ince bir dal\u0131n\u0131n oradan kopar\u0131larak bir sopaya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclebilmesi veya i\u00e7inde farkl\u0131 nesnelerin kondu\u011fu bir kibrit kutusunun i\u00e7inin bo\u015falt\u0131larak muhafaza eden bir nesneden, bir mum i\u00e7in zemin olacak bir nesneye d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclmesi i\u015flevlendirilmesi bu tarz bir yeniden \u015fekillendirmedir. Son b\u00f6l\u00fcmde ise g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 ile olas\u0131 ili\u015fkisine de\u011finilecektir. Sonu\u00e7 olarak, aynen bellekte oldu\u011fu gibi \u00fcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmede de Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n iki ana \u00f6nermesi, \u015fekil-zemin ayr\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 ve \u015fekillerde gruplaman\u0131n \u00e7ok kritik rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclecektir. B\u00f6ylelikle iki temel \u00f6nerme yoluyla, hem alg\u0131, hem bellek, hem d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme i\u015fleyi\u015fini a\u00e7\u0131klamay\u0131 hedefleyen ve ilgin\u00e7 a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131mlar getiren bir kuram s\u00f6z konusudur. Bildi\u011fimiz kadar\u0131yla b\u00f6ylesi geni\u015f a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 g\u00fcc\u00fc olan herhangi bir kuram hen\u00fcz bili\u015fsel psikolojinin i\u00e7inde mevcut de\u011fil. Bu da, Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131 bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak dikkate almak i\u00e7in \u00f6nemli bir neden daha say\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Anahtar kelimeler:<\/strong> Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131, \u2018\u00fcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme\u2019, problem \u00e7\u00f6zme<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Introduction<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Bu makale, Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 \u00fczerine yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z makalelerin \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fcd\u00fcr. \u0130lk makalede kuram\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131, kurucular, kuram\u0131n ana \u00f6nermeleri ve nispeten daha iyi bilinen alg\u0131 alan\u0131ndaki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 incelendi (Mungan, 2020). \u0130kinci makalede ise kuram\u0131n hemen hi\u00e7 bilinmeyen bellek alan\u0131ndaki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ve \u00f6nermeleri mercek alt\u0131na al\u0131nd\u0131 (Mungan, 2021a). Bu son makalenin oda\u011f\u0131nda ise kuram\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme ve problem \u00e7\u00f6zme \u00fczerine yapt\u0131klar\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar ve fikirler yer alacakt\u0131r. Bu kapsamda, Wolfgang K\u00f6hler\u2019in 1914\u20131920 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda Kanarya Adalar\u0131\u2019ndan biri olan Tenerife\u2019de \u015fempanzelerle yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131, zaman\u0131n bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 adeta alt\u00fcst eden problem \u00e7\u00f6zme ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7 kurucusu aras\u0131nda yeti\u015fmi\u015f Karl Duncker\u2019\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na yer verilecektir. Duncker\u2019\u0131n bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 d\u00f6nemin \u201cbili\u015fsel devrim\u201d takip\u00e7ileri taraf\u0131ndan heyecanla kar\u015f\u0131lanm\u0131\u015f olsa da, en \u00e7ok at\u0131f yap\u0131lan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n yanl\u0131\u015f aktar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 ve genel anlamda kurama dayal\u0131 ana fikrinin g\u00f6zard\u0131 edilmi\u015f olmas\u0131 dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. Makalenin son b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde psikolojide ve bilgisayar bilimlerinde Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nermeleriyle ili\u015fkilenebilecek kimi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalara de\u011finilecektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme: Problem \u00c7\u00f6zme, \u201c\u00dcretken D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme,\u201d Yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Wolfgang K\u00f6hler\u2019in 1921 Tarihli \u201c\u015eempanzelerin Zek\u00e2s\u0131 \u00dczerine De\u011ferlendirme\u201d2 Kitab\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

K\u00f6hler\u2019in bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, 1914\u20131920 tarihleri aras\u0131nda Tenerif\u2019te \u015fempanzeler \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 uzun soluklu incelemeler sonucu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar. Kitab\u0131n daha hemen ikinci sayfas\u0131nda amac\u0131n\u0131n, d\u00f6nemin bilimini yo\u011fun etkisi, hatta tahakk\u00fbmu alt\u0131na alm\u0131\u015f, her \u015feyi rastgelelilik ve pe\u015f pe\u015fe ko\u015fullama yoluyla a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan ampirist bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fmaya a\u00e7mak oldu\u011funu belirtir.3 K\u00f6hler, rastgele davran\u0131\u015f ile rastgele olmayan davran\u0131\u015f aras\u0131ndaki farka dikkat \u00e7eker ve asl\u0131nda bir ampiristin bile basit bir g\u00f6zlemle bu fark\u0131 g\u00f6rmezden gelemeyece\u011fini s\u00f6yler. Kitab\u0131n\u0131n, bu rastgele olmayan davran\u0131\u015flara ve onlar\u0131n kimi ortak \u00f6zelliklerine yo\u011funla\u015faca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir. Thorndike\u2019\u0131n me\u015fhur kedili k\u00f6pekli deneylerini ise, tam da, deneme yan\u0131lma d\u0131\u015f\u0131 y\u00f6ntemlerle \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclemeyecek \u015fekilde d\u00fczenlenmi\u015f olmalar\u0131 nedeniyle ele\u015ftirir. \u00d6rne\u011fin kedilerin yerle\u015ftirildi\u011fi darac\u0131k, derme \u00e7atma kafes ve o kafesin i\u00e7indeki karman \u00e7orman ipler, zaten kafes kap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7acak d\u00fczene\u011fi kavramay\u0131 daha ba\u015ftan imk\u00e2ns\u0131z k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Oraya de\u011fil bir kediyi bir insan\u0131 da koysan\u0131z muhtemelen deneme yan\u0131lma y\u00f6ntemini kullanmak zorunda kal\u0131r. Ama K\u00f6hler\u2019e g\u00f6re sorun yaln\u0131zca Thorndike\u2019\u0131n garip kafeslerinde de\u011fildir. Genel olarak Amerikan hayvan psikolojisinin s\u00fcrekli, i\u00e7inde hi\u00e7bir ipucu veya anlaml\u0131 ba\u011flant\u0131lar kurma imk\u00e2n\u0131n\u0131n sunulmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 labirentleri kullanmas\u0131n\u0131 da benzer \u015fekilde sorunlu veya en az\u0131ndan eksik bulur. Buna kar\u015f\u0131n canl\u0131lara, sorun, hedef ve olas\u0131 ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7ler aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkileri, kendi i\u00e7lerindeki olas\u0131 gruplanmalar\u0131, Ge\u015ftalt\u2019lar\u0131 g\u00f6rme imk\u00e2n\u0131 sunulursa b\u0131rak\u0131n do\u011fru davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n, hatal\u0131 olanlar\u0131n bile rastgele de\u011fil anlaml\u0131 oldu\u011funu g\u00f6zlemledi\u011fini vurgular.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dolamba\u00e7l\u0131 Yolu Se\u00e7ebilme Yetisi: Rastgelelilik ve \u201c\u0130\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc\u201dye Dair<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u015eekil 1\u2019de K\u00f6hler\u2019in, as\u0131l deney serisine ba\u015flamadan evvel yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6n deneyin eskizini g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 1<\/strong> (K\u00f6hler, 1921; ok ve metre bilgisi yazar taraf\u0131ndan eklenmi\u015ftir)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Sepet, \u015fempanzenin her zaman yemek buldu\u011fu bir sepettir. Ancak sepet, bir ip ve tavandaki bir kanca yoluyla \u015fekildeki gibi bir a\u011fa\u00e7 dal\u0131na ba\u011flanarak zeminden iki metre y\u00fckseklikte as\u0131l\u0131 durur. K\u00f6hler, girdi\u011fi alanda kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda bu d\u00fczene\u011fi bulan \u015fempanzenin davran\u0131\u015f silsilesini tarif eder. \u015eempanze bir m\u00fcddet sepete bakar, sonraysa k\u0131sa bir \u00f6fke n\u00f6betinden sonra (ki K\u00f6hler bunun, yaln\u0131zl\u0131\u011fa al\u0131\u015fk\u0131n olmayan \u015fempanzenin bu ortama tek ba\u015f\u0131na b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmaktan do\u011fmu\u015f olabilece\u011fini belirtir) birden ipin ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011fu dala t\u0131rman\u0131r ve k\u0131sa bir m\u00fcddet sonra ipi \u00e7eker. \u0130pi \u00e7ekerken g\u00f6z\u00fc sepettedir, sepet tepedeki kan\u00e7aya \u00e7arpt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ipi b\u0131rak\u0131r ve sepetin tekrar a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015fmesini izler. Hemen ard\u0131ndan ipi bu sefer \u00e7ok daha kuvvetle \u00e7eker, sepet tepeye sert\u00e7e \u00e7arpar, devrilir ve i\u00e7indeki muz yere d\u00fc\u015fer. \u015eempanze iner, muzu al\u0131r ve muzuyla tekrar ayn\u0131 yere t\u0131rman\u0131r, bu sefer ipe adeta as\u0131l\u0131r, ipin kopmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7ar, sepet oldu\u011fu gibi yere d\u00fc\u015fer, \u015fempanze a\u011fa\u00e7tan iner ve sepetteki di\u011fer meyveleri de toplar. \u015eempanzenin bu d\u00fczenekte bildi\u011fi tek \u015fey, o sepetin ona meyve verilen sepet olmas\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6te yandan as\u0131l\u0131 olan sepete deney \u00f6ncesi meyvelerin konulma an\u0131na tan\u0131k olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bir ba\u015fka g\u00f6zlemi bu sefer di\u015fi bir k\u00f6pekledir4 . Bu da yine K\u00f6hler\u2019in, as\u0131l deneylerinden evvel y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc pilot \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131ndan biridir. K\u00f6hler bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmada k\u00f6pe\u011fin, hedefe giden k\u0131sa yol engellendi\u011fi takdirde karma\u015f\u0131k ve asl\u0131nda onu bir m\u00fcddet hedeften uzakla\u015ft\u0131ran yola y\u00f6nelip y\u00f6nelmeyece\u011fini inceler. Bu sefer iki d\u00fczenek vard\u0131r. \u0130lkinde k\u00f6pek demirliklerin arkas\u0131ndad\u0131r, yiyecek ise demirliklerin di\u011fer taraf\u0131ndad\u0131r (\u015eekil 2a). K\u00f6pek bir m\u00fcddet durur ve sonra h\u0131zl\u0131ca hedefe z\u0131t bir yoldan gidip, sa\u011f\u0131ndaki tellerle \u00e7evreli 2×2 metrekare sahan\u0131n \u00e7evresinden dolan\u0131p d\u0131\u015f \u00e7eperden ko\u015farak yiyece\u011fe ula\u015f\u0131r. Engel a\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, mutlu sona var\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.5 Ba\u015fka bir d\u00fczenekte (\u015eekil 2b) ayn\u0131 di\u015fi k\u00f6pek b\u00fcsb\u00fct\u00fcn rahat\u00e7a hedefe ula\u015f\u0131r. Ard\u0131ndan bu ikinci d\u00fczenekte K\u00f6hler kritik bir de\u011fi\u015fiklik yapar ve bu sefer uzaktaki yiyece\u011fi demirlerin hemen arkas\u0131na yerle\u015ftirir. Bu sefer k\u00f6pek bir fiksasyon i\u00e7inde burnuyla yiyece\u011fi nafile bir \u015fekilde demirliklerin aras\u0131ndan almaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131r. Bu sefer, \u00f6nceden yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi yiyece\u011fe s\u0131rt\u0131n\u0131 d\u00f6n\u00fcp duvar\u0131n yan\u0131ndan di\u011fer tarafa ge\u00e7ip yiyece\u011fe ula\u015fmay\u0131 \u201cak\u0131l etmez\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 2a ve 2b<\/strong> (K\u00f6hler, 1921; k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 oklar ve mavi yaz\u0131 yazar taraf\u0131ndan eklenmi\u015ftir)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u015eekil 3\u2019teki d\u00fczenekte ise tavuklar\u0131n davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 inceler. Tavuklar\u0131n hareketleri (resimdeki siyah gitgelli \u00e7izgiler) hakikaten rastgeleli\u011fi hat\u0131rlat\u0131r, en az\u0131ndan bir \u201ci\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc\u201d, yani hedef-engel-engeli a\u015fma sonu\u00e7 aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkilere dair herhangi bir \u2018kavray\u0131\u015f\u2019 g\u00f6zlemlenmez, tavuklar\u0131n hi\u00e7biri tekli bir davran\u0131\u015fla hedefe s\u0131rt\u0131n\u0131 d\u00f6n\u00fcp z\u0131t istikamette ilerleyip telin sa\u011f uzant\u0131s\u0131ndan d\u0131\u015far\u0131ya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p do\u011frudan yiyece\u011fe ula\u015famaz. Hedefe ula\u015fabilenler, yaln\u0131zca iki taraf\u0131 \u00e7evrili kafesin i\u00e7inde rastgele gidip gelirken kendilerini bir anda telin sa\u011f\u0131nda bulanlard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 3.<\/strong> (K\u00f6hler, 1921)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

K\u00f6hler i\u00e7in bu pilot g\u00f6zlemler, rastgele olan (tavuklar\u0131n davran\u0131\u015f\u0131) ile olmayan (k\u00f6pe\u011fin davran\u0131\u015f\u0131) aras\u0131ndaki farklar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr k\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Dolamba\u00e7l\u0131 yolu se\u00e7ebilme yetisini \u015fempanzelerde de t\u00fcrl\u00fc farkl\u0131 d\u00fczenekle bu sefer deneysel varyantlar\u0131yla test eder. Bulgular benzerdir: \u015eempanzeler de hedefe ula\u015fmak i\u00e7in genelde teredd\u00fct etmeksizin dolamba\u00e7l\u0131 yolu se\u00e7meyi bilir; o yol onlar\u0131 ilk etapta arzulan\u0131r hedeften uzakla\u015ft\u0131rsa da. K\u00f6hler, rastgele olmayan, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda \u201ci\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc\u201d kavram\u0131yla tan\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 tip davran\u0131\u015flarda, ba\u015ftan sona ak\u0131\u015f ve b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fiklik oldu\u011fundan bahseder. \u00d6te yandan rastgele olan davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n kopuk kopuk, birbiriyle kayna\u015fmayan, hareket h\u0131zlar\u0131n\u0131n bile birbirinden kopuk ve birbiriyle tutars\u0131z oldu\u011funa i\u015faret eder. Burada yine Ge\u015ftalt bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n olaylar\u0131 ele al\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki titizli\u011fini ve kapsaml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. Amerikan ampirist bak\u0131\u015f yaln\u0131zca ba\u015fard\u0131-ba\u015farmad\u0131 ekseninde do\u011fru-yanl\u0131\u015f puanlamas\u0131 yap\u0131p h\u0131z \u00f6l\u00e7erken burada hareket silsilesinin de tahlilini g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz. Ancak \u00f6nemli bir \u015feyi daha g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn, o da Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n kendini dar bir \u201crastgelecilik\u201d veya \u201ci\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcc\u00fcl\u00fck\u201d ikili\u011fine hapsettirmemesidir. Kan\u0131mca Amerikan eksenli psikolojinin en b\u00fcy\u00fck sorunu inceledi\u011fi olgular\u0131 neredeyse s\u00fcrekli bir kamp\u00e7\u0131l\u0131k, kutup\u00e7uluk i\u00e7inde ele almas\u0131d\u0131r. Oysa buradaki bir iki \u00f6rnekten bile rahat\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz ki, elbette rastgele, deneme yan\u0131lma y\u00f6ntemleriyle ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen problem \u00e7\u00f6zme davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 da vard\u0131r, ama keza daha \u201ci\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fc\u201d problem \u00e7\u00f6zme davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 da vard\u0131r. Bunlardan hangisinin g\u00f6zlemlenece\u011fi kimi zaman kullan\u0131lan d\u00fczene\u011fin anla\u015f\u0131lmazl\u0131\u011f\u0131 veya anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131na, kimi zamansa hayvan\u0131n t\u00fcr\u00fcne veya \u00e7ocu\u011fun ya\u015f\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ara\u00e7 Gere\u00e7lerle Etkile\u015fim<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 kullan\u0131m\u0131.<\/em><\/strong> Ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 inceledi\u011fi d\u00fczeneklerde K\u00f6hler, farkl\u0131 ara\u00e7lar\u0131n ayn\u0131 i\u015flev i\u00e7in kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131na dikkat \u00e7eker. \u00d6rne\u011fin \u015fempanzelerin, demirlerin aras\u0131ndan elle ula\u015f\u0131lamayacak bir yiyece\u011fi kendine do\u011fru \u00e7ekebilmek i\u00e7in farkl\u0131 ara\u00e7lar aras\u0131nda ilk etapta sopay\u0131 kulland\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131, e\u011fer sopa yoksa bir \u015fapkay\u0131 kenar\u0131ndan tutup onun di\u011fer kenar\u0131yla yiyece\u011fi kendilerine do\u011fru \u00e7ekebildiklerini ve hatta, ortada i\u015fe yarar hi\u00e7bir \u015fey olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, yak\u0131ndaki bir a\u011fac\u0131n dal\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6zlerine kestirip onu a\u011fa\u00e7tan kopar\u0131p ara\u00e7 olarak kulland\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 not eder. Buradaki her bir ara\u00e7 se\u00e7ene\u011fi Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nermeleriyle uyumluluk g\u00f6sterir. Daha \u00f6nceki \u00f6\u011frenme b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde de bahsi ge\u00e7ti\u011fi gibi Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019na g\u00f6re \u00f6\u011frenmede esas olan, birbirinden farkl\u0131 nesnelerin ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 ortak yap\u0131y\u0131 kavramakt\u0131r. Mesela bu \u00f6rnekte s\u00f6z konusu yap\u0131, \u201csert ve gerekli uzunluktaki bir \u015fey\u201ddir, bu bir ip olamaz, b\u00fcy\u00fck ama yumu\u015fak bir yaprak da olamaz ama bir sopa veya sert k\u0131vr\u0131ml\u0131 \u015fapka veya a\u011fac\u0131n dal\u0131 olabilir. Nitekim \u015fempanzeler genelde daha ilk ad\u0131mda do\u011fru ara\u00e7lara y\u00f6nelir.6Bu deneylerde ara\u00e7lar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc de manip\u00fcle edilen de\u011fi\u015fkenlerden olur. Kimi zaman ara\u00e7, bo\u015f alan\u0131n i\u00e7indeki tek nesnedir (=en belirgin, tekil, \u201cpr\u00e4gnant\u201d hal), kimi zamansa bir\u00e7ok gerekli gereksiz nesnenin aras\u0131ndad\u0131r, ki bu haliyle onlar\u0131n i\u00e7inde \u201cg\u00f6r\u00fcnmez\u201d bir par\u00e7aya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr. \u0130kinci durumda, ancak \u015fempanze nesneleri kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmaya ba\u015flarsa kritik arac\u0131n di\u011ferlerinden ayr\u0131\u015fma ve belirginle\u015fme olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bu tarz planl\u0131 plans\u0131z ortal\u0131\u011f\u0131 kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131rma davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 da yararl\u0131 olmaktad\u0131r.7Ara\u00e7 \u015fempanzenin odak b\u00f6lgesinde oldu\u011funda daha h\u0131zl\u0131, farkl\u0131 nesneler aras\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcnmez oldu\u011fundaysa daha zor farkedilir, sonuca ula\u015fma s\u00fcresi uzar. Di\u011fer yandan K\u00f6hler, a\u011fa\u00e7tan bir dal\u0131n kopar\u0131l\u0131p kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 haz\u0131r bulunan bir arac\u0131 kullanmaktan farkl\u0131 de\u011ferlendirir. Burada bir b\u00fct\u00fcne ait olan bir \u015fey, birden b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcnden ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r, yani \u015fempanze a\u011faca art\u0131k bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak de\u011fil, i\u00e7indeki, \u201csert ve gerekli uzunluktaki bir \u015fey\u201di bulabilmek \u00fczere bakar, ihtiyac\u0131 olan par\u00e7ay\u0131 bulur, a\u011fa\u00e7tan kopar\u0131r ve kullan\u0131r. Bu, ortal\u0131ktaki bir sopay\u0131 kullanmaktan daha \u00f6te bir esnekli\u011fe ve \u201cyarat\u0131c\u0131 d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011fe\u201d i\u015faret eder. Bir ba\u015fka deney d\u00fczene\u011finde yine tepede \u015fempanzenin z\u0131playarak eliyle eri\u015femeyece\u011fi y\u00fckseklikte bir muz as\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Etrafta farkl\u0131 uzunlukta sopalar ve d\u00fcz, ters veya yan yatm\u0131\u015f, i\u00e7i bo\u015f veya dolu meyve sand\u0131klar\u0131 durur. \u015eekil 4a-c \u015fempanzelerin farkl\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlerini g\u00f6sterir. K\u00f6hler inan\u0131lmaz bir titizlikle toplam yedi \u015fempanzenin her birinin olaya nas\u0131l yakla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, ilk hangi davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 g\u00f6sterdiklerini, neyi ne kadar s\u00fcreyle denemeye devam ettiklerini ve aralardaki \u00f6fke n\u00f6betlerini dahi raporlar. Kimisi hemen sopaya y\u00f6nelir ancak se\u00e7ti\u011fi sopa yeterince uzun de\u011fildir dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bir sonraki hamlede daha uzun olan sopay\u0131 se\u00e7er. Burada K\u00f6hler, k\u0131sa sopan\u0131n se\u00e7ilmesinin bir hata olsa da rastgele bir hata olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, \u201ciyi bir hata\u201d oldu\u011funu belirtir ki bu \u00f6nemli bir ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmad\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla incelemelerinde \u201cdo\u011fru davran\u0131\u015flar\u201d, \u201ciyi hatalar\u201d ve \u201ck\u00f6t\u00fc (yani rastgele) hatalar\u201d gruplamas\u0131n\u0131 yapar.8 Keza kutular\u0131n ka\u00e7 seferde ve hangi \u015fekillerde \u00fcst \u00fcste oturtulmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, ilk etapta mant\u0131k d\u0131\u015f\u0131 gelen bir davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n bir tip \u201cpratik yol\u201d olarak kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilece\u011fini belirtir (\u00f6rne\u011fin dikd\u00f6rtgen sand\u0131\u011f\u0131 sa\u011flam olan geni\u015f y\u00fczeyi yerine \u015eekil 4c\u2019de g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc sand\u0131ktaki gibi k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck y\u00fczeyiyle oturtup sorunu daha h\u0131zl\u0131, daha az sand\u0131kla \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak gibi). Bazen kutular\u0131n i\u00e7leri a\u011f\u0131r ta\u015flarla doludur, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bu engeli kald\u0131rmalar\u0131, ta\u015flar\u0131 bo\u015faltmalar\u0131 gerekmektedir. Bu tip \u201cengellemeler\u201d \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc geciktirse de er ge\u00e7 ba\u015f edildi\u011fini not eder K\u00f6hler. Bir ba\u015fka notunda, \u015fempanzeler e\u011fer bek\u00e7ilerden birini g\u00f6r\u00fcrlerse deneme yapmaktan vazge\u00e7ip ilk i\u015f ona ko\u015fup, elinden tutup muza i\u015faret ettiklerini ve bek\u00e7i yard\u0131m etmeyince \u00f6fkelendiklerini belirtir. K\u00f6hler \u015fempanzelerin su i\u00e7mek i\u00e7in kulland\u0131klar\u0131 kam\u0131\u015f\u0131 kar\u0131nca yuvalar\u0131nda kullanmalar\u0131n\u0131 (do\u011fal ortam\u0131ndaki \u015fempanzelerse bunun i\u00e7in bazen d\u0131\u015f k\u0131l\u0131f\u0131n\u0131 soyduklar\u0131 ince dallar veya ince yapraklar kullan\u0131r), uyuma yerlerini orada haz\u0131r bulunan samanlarla d\u00fczenlemeleri (do\u011fal ortamlar\u0131nda o tarz ekstra konforlar yoktur), sopalar\u0131 silah olarak (bir ba\u015fkas\u0131na vurmak, bir \u015feyi k\u0131rmak \u00fczere) kullanmalar\u0131n\u0131, i\u011frendikleri d\u0131\u015fk\u0131 gibi \u015feyleri onlara dokunmadan \u00e7evrelerindeki ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7lerle kendilerinden uzakla\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131n\u0131 da bu ba\u015fl\u0131k alt\u0131nda \u00f6rneklendirir (bkz. \u015eekil 4 a-c).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 4a-c<\/strong> (K\u00f6hler, 1921)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7 d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fc ve yap\u0131m\u0131. <\/em><\/strong>K\u00f6hler \u015fempanzelerin davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 incelerken yaln\u0131zca haz\u0131rda olan ara\u00e7 gere\u00e7leri farkedip kullanmalar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fil, onlar\u0131 ne \u015fekilde kulland\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 da ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131yla mercek alt\u0131na al\u0131r. Bir \u00f6rnekte \u015fempanzelerin biri uzun bir sopay\u0131 al\u0131r ve onu tepede as\u0131l\u0131 duran bir yiyece\u011fe uzanmak \u00fczere de\u011fil, yepyeni, adeta akrobatik bir s\u0131r\u0131\u011fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrerek kullan\u0131r (\u015eekil 5). Bir di\u011fer \u00f6rnekte, yine eri\u015filmez bir muz vard\u0131r ve \u015fempanzenin etraf\u0131ndaki t\u00fcrl\u00fc nesnenin aras\u0131nda birbirinden farkl\u0131 boy ve \u00e7aplarda bambu sopalar\u0131 bulunur. \u015eempanzelerden biri bu sopalar\u0131 al\u0131p birka\u00e7 hatal\u0131 i\u00e7 i\u00e7e ge\u00e7irme hamlesinden sonra do\u011fru bambu \u00e7aplar\u0131n\u0131 se\u00e7ip daha uzun bir sopa yapmay\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131r (\u015eekil 6). K\u00f6hler, bir sopay\u0131 kald\u0131ra\u00e7 olarak kullanma veya bir \u015feye saplayabilmek i\u00e7in ucunu sivriltme gibi davran\u0131\u015flar da g\u00f6zlemler. Bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra etraftaki tavuklar\u0131 \u201ck\u0131zd\u0131rma\u201d, onlara yemlerini verir gibi yap\u0131p \u00f6nlerinden alma, bir ba\u015fka \u015fempanzenin muza uzanmak \u00fczere sand\u0131ktan kule yap\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 izleyip \u015fempanze tam onun tepesine \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda kuleyi devirip ka\u00e7ma gibi \u201cmuz\u0131rl\u0131klar\u201d da not eder. Ayr\u0131ca bir\u00e7ok deney d\u00fczene\u011finde \u015fempanzeler birlikte incelenir. Bu incelemelerde genelde her birinin hedefine ula\u015fmak i\u00e7in kendi yol yordam\u0131n\u0131 buldu\u011funu, hi\u00e7bir zaman planl\u0131 bir i\u015fbirli\u011fi i\u00e7inde davranmad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 not eder (\u015eekil 7).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Genel De\u011ferlendirme<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

K\u00f6hler\u2019in 207 sayfal\u0131k bu kitab\u0131ndaki birbirinden ilgin\u00e7 say\u0131s\u0131z tespitinin ve onlar\u0131n dikkatli incelemelerinin hepsini burada sunmam\u0131z imk\u00e2ns\u0131zd\u0131r. Ancak bu eserinde de en \u00f6nemli sonu\u00e7, bir hayvan\u0131n problem \u00e7\u00f6zme becerisinin tek ba\u015f\u0131na onun \u00f6\u011frenme mazisine indirgenemeyece\u011fidir. Ayn\u0131 hayvan\u0131n, g\u00f6rsel d\u00fczenlemelere ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zme \u015feklinin de\u011fi\u015fmesi, alan\u0131 alg\u0131lay\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7iminin de ne kadar kritik ve o zamana kadar (asl\u0131nda halen de) g\u00f6zden ka\u00e7m\u0131\u015f bir etken oldu\u011funa i\u015faret eder. Bu ba\u011flamda \u015fempanzelerin g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi davran\u0131\u015flar hemen hi\u00e7 rastgele de\u011fildir, tersine davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 duruma ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak geli\u015fir ve kimi zaman \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc getirmeseler de gayet \u201ci\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fc\u201d davran\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Ama en \u00f6nemlisi, K\u00f6hler\u2019in bu \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7an \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, son derece yarat\u0131c\u0131 y\u00f6ntemlerle, indirgemeci olmadan ama ayn\u0131 zamanda antropomorfizme de d\u00fc\u015fmeden, hayvanlar\u0131n problem \u00e7\u00f6zme yetilerinin incelenebildi\u011fini g\u00f6sterir. Bu tarz titiz, kapsaml\u0131 ve ba\u011flam\u0131ndan kopar\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f incelemeleri, K\u00f6hler\u2019in \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131ndan ancak 40\u201350 y\u0131l sonra 1960\u2019l\u0131, 70\u2019li y\u0131llarda g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. 1960\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llarda bu alanda ikinci bir \u00e7\u0131\u011f\u0131r a\u00e7an, ancak yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar uzun m\u00fcddet ana ak\u0131m bilim taraf\u0131ndan g\u00f6rmezli\u011fe gelinen9 bir ba\u015fka ki\u015fi de Jane Goodall\u2019d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Karl Duncker\u2019\u0131n (1903\u20131940) 1935 Tarihli \u201c\u00dcretken D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmenin Psikolojisi\u201d Kitab\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Karl Duncker insanlar\u0131n problem \u00e7\u00f6zme ve yarat\u0131c\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme becerilerini titiz bilimsel y\u00f6ntemlerle inceleyen ilk ki\u015fi diye bilinir10. Doktora sonras\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 bir araya getirdi\u011fi bu kitapta ister matematik problemlerinde ister daha \u201cg\u00fcndelik\u201d problemlerde olsun insanlar\u0131n bir sorunu ne \u015fekilde ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve ne gibi y\u00f6ntemlerle \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tahlil eder. Bunu yapabilmek i\u00e7in kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6ntem sesli d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmedir. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n deney esnas\u0131nda ak\u0131llar\u0131ndan ge\u00e7en her \u015feyi, en sa\u00e7ma d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler dahil, sesli olarak aktarmas\u0131n\u0131 ister. Kendilerine sunulan problemlerin, \u00f6n bilgi veya uzmanl\u0131k gerektirmeyen \u00f6zellikte olmas\u0131na dikkat eder. Odakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fey, i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc olu\u015fum s\u00fcrecidir ve s\u00fcre\u00e7 i\u00e7inde yap\u0131lan hatalar\u0131n hangilerinin mant\u0131ks\u0131z, hangilerinin, K\u00f6hler\u2019in tabiriyle \u201ciyi hatalar\u201d oldu\u011funu inceler. Ard\u0131ndan, farkl\u0131 kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n \u00fcretti\u011fi farkl\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmleri temel yakla\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak tasnif eder. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u201cEn az hasarla bir bedendeki t\u00fcmor nas\u0131l yok edilir. Elinizde bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n aleti vard\u0131r.\u201d gibi bir problemde \u00fc\u00e7 farkl\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131m tespit eder: (1) sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 dokuya hi\u00e7bir \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fmemesini sa\u011flayan \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmler; (2) sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 dokunun \u0131\u015f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 hassasiyetini azaltmay\u0131 ama\u00e7layan \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmler; ve (3) \u0131\u015f\u0131nlar\u0131n sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 dokuya verecekleri zararlar\u0131 sonras\u0131nda uygulanacak y\u00f6ntemlerle azaltmay\u0131 ama\u00e7layan \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmler. Duncker, bu s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131rmalar\u0131 yapt\u0131ktan sonra her birinde i\u015fletilen muhakeme silsilesini ve hatalar\u0131n cinsini ele al\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Problemin Yeniden \u015eekillendirilmesi<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tespit etti\u011fi en kritik nokta, bir problemi anlaml\u0131 \u015fekilde \u00e7\u00f6zmeyi ba\u015faranlar\u0131n, problemi kendi zihinlerinde yeniden \u015fekillendirebilenler oldu\u011fudur. Burada, sorunun ki\u015finin zihninde daha iyi form\u00fcle edilmesi ile \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme var\u0131\u015f s\u00fcreci i\u00e7 i\u00e7e iki s\u00fcre\u00e7tir. Problemin yeniden \u015fekillendirilmesi s\u00fcrecinde s\u00f6z konusu olan, sunulan verilerin ilk bak\u0131\u015fta empoze ettikleri kimi gruplamalar\u0131ndan (ister g\u00f6rsel ister anlamsal) kopar\u0131l\u0131p taze bir bak\u0131\u015fla farkl\u0131 \u015fekilde gruplan\u0131p ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmalar\u0131d\u0131r. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, herhangi bir problem \u00e7\u00f6zme faatliyetinde yine Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2018n\u0131n en temel mekanizmas\u0131 (gruplama ve \u015fekil-zemin ayr\u0131\u015fmas\u0131) y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fcktedir ve bu s\u00fcre\u00e7ler hem ya\u015fanan t\u0131kan\u0131kl\u0131klar\u0131n hem \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlerin bulunu\u015funun a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131n\u0131 sunar. Di\u011fer yandan kimi problemler basittir ve hemen herkes taraf\u0131ndan \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu problemlerin ortak yan\u0131 sunulan\u0131n, yine Duncker\u2019\u0131n problem \u00e7\u00f6zme konusunda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 tahliller ve bahsini etti\u011fi mekanizmalardan yola \u00e7\u0131karak, o tek eksik k\u0131s\u0131m d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda hemen hemen tamamlanm\u0131\u015f olu\u015fudur. Bir yapboz buna iyi \u00f6rnektir. B\u00fcy\u00fck bir yapboz d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnelim ve onun bir b\u00f6lgesinde bir par\u00e7a hari\u00e7 hepsinin tamamlanm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnelim. Burada o bo\u015flu\u011fa girmesi gereken par\u00e7a g\u00f6rsel olarak (Gibson\u2019\u0131n tabiriyle bir \u201caffordance\u201d, \u2018sa\u011flay\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k\u2019 yaratarak) \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131 adeta \u201c\u00e7a\u011f\u0131r\u0131r\u201d ve ki\u015fi hen\u00fcz yapboza yerle\u015ftirilmemi\u015f par\u00e7alar aras\u0131nda o \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fcksek bir hedeflilikle arar ve yerle\u015ftirir; \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm bulunmu\u015ftur. Nitekim Duncker kitab\u0131nda Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2018n\u0131n kapal\u0131l\u0131k (\u201cclosure\u201d) ilkesinin de problem \u00e7\u00f6zmede etkin bir mekanizma oldu\u011funa dikkat \u00e7eker, aynen deminki yapboz \u00f6rne\u011fimizde g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc gibi.11 Duncker, daha karma\u015f\u0131k problemlerin yeniden \u015fekillendirilmesi s\u00fcrecinin ise genellikle tek seferde \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme ula\u015fma bi\u00e7iminde de\u011fil de, tekrar tekrar yeniden \u015fekillendirmelerle ad\u0131m ad\u0131m \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme varma bi\u00e7iminde oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yler. Bu m\u00fckerrer s\u00fcre\u00e7 i\u00e7inde de, hem verili olan\u0131n a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dan yukar\u0131 (\u201cvon unten her\u201d) hem \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm i\u00e7in gerek duyulan\u0131n yukar\u0131dan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 (\u201cvon oben her\u201d) s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin i\u015fledi\u011fini vurgular. Mesela deminki basit yapboz \u00f6rne\u011fimizi ele alal\u0131m: Bulunmas\u0131 gereken par\u00e7an\u0131n \u00f6zg\u00fcn \u00f6zellikleri yapbozdaki o tek par\u00e7al\u0131k bo\u015fluktan do\u011far, yani a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dan yukar\u0131 bir s\u00fcre\u00e7 s\u00f6z konusudur, \u00f6te yandan o \u015feklin yapbozun yerle\u015ftirilmemi\u015f par\u00e7alar\u0131 aras\u0131nda bulunmas\u0131 yukar\u0131dan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131, yani hedef imgeden hedef par\u00e7aya y\u00f6nelik bir i\u015flem s\u00fcrecini bar\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bulu\u015fsal Y\u00f6ntem, Kestirme Yollar<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Duncker kitab\u0131nda farkl\u0131 i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc derecelerinden bahseder. Her i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcn illaki tam te\u015fekk\u00fcll\u00fc bir i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, k\u0131smi i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fclerin de (ve elbette, rastgele davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 do\u011furan tam te\u015fekk\u00fcll\u00fc i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcs\u00fczl\u00fcklerin de) s\u00f6z konusu olabildi\u011fini belirtir. K\u0131smi i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcl\u00fck durumlar\u0131nda genelde kimi kestirme yollardan veya ara bulu\u015fsal y\u00f6ntemlerden (\u201cheuristics\u201d) faydalan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, kendisine sunulan bir problem, bildi\u011fi ba\u015fka bir problemle benze\u015fir ve ki\u015fi o problemde ba\u015fvurdu\u011fu y\u00f6ntemi kullan\u0131r veya uyarlar. Burada da Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n iki \u00f6nemli \u00f6gesini buluruz. Bunlardan biri benze\u015fimle ilgili olan \u201cayn\u0131l\u0131k\u201d ilkesidir \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc se\u00e7ilen bulu\u015fsal y\u00f6ntemi o ayn\u0131l\u0131k alg\u0131s\u0131 \u00e7a\u011f\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Di\u011feri ise Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n fenomenal \u00e7evre dedi\u011fi \u00f6nermesidir. O da ayn\u0131 problemin bir ki\u015fide tetikledi\u011fi bulu\u015fsal y\u00f6ntemi di\u011fer bir ki\u015fide tetiklemeyebilece\u011fidir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc A ki\u015fisi i\u00e7in yeni problem ile \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc bildi\u011fi eski problemdeki \u2018ayn\u0131l\u0131k\u2019 B ki\u015fisi i\u00e7in s\u00f6z konusu olmayabilir. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle iki ki\u015fi ayn\u0131 probleme bakar ama farkl\u0131 \u015feyler g\u00f6r\u00fcrler, hem alg\u0131sal hem birikimsel farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131ndan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme Bi\u00e7imleri: Analitik Okuma ve Sentez Yollu Okuma<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bizlerin daha \u00e7ok \u201cd\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme\u201d fiiliyle yan yana getirdi\u011fimiz analitik ve sentezleme tan\u0131mlamas\u0131n\u0131 Duncker \u201cokuma\u201d fiiliyle yan yana getiriyor. Hatta kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 tabir \u201cablesen\u201dd\u0131r, yani \u201c\u00f6n\u00fcnde verili bir \u015feyden okuma\u201dd\u0131r ve sezmeyi de anlam olarak bar\u0131nd\u0131r\u0131r. \u00dcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmede, yani, bir \u015feyin bir ba\u015fka \u015feye d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc tip d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmede, ister matematikte, ister mant\u0131kta ister bilimsel ara\u015ft\u0131rmalarda olsun, senteze dayal\u0131 i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc bir olmazsa olmazd\u0131r Duncker\u2019a g\u00f6re. Senteze dayal\u0131 i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc ise, olaylara (1) yeni bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131yla (2) yeni y\u00f6nelimlerle, (3) yeni \u2018toparlay\u0131\u015f\u2019larla ve (4) bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak bakabilmeyi kapsar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Senteze dayal\u0131 i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc. <\/em><\/strong>Duncker, bu kavrama ili\u015fkin bir \u00f6rnek olarak matemati\u011fin ge\u00e7i\u015flilik kural\u0131n\u0131 sunar. E\u011fer a > b ise ve b > c ise, a > c\u2019dir. Burada \u00f6nemli olan, her bir par\u00e7an\u0131n tek tek ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 mutlak de\u011ferler de\u011fil onlar aras\u0131ndaki g\u00f6receli ve b\u00fct\u00fcnsel ili\u015fkidir. Buna kar\u015f\u0131n, \u00f6rne\u011fin tipik bir psikofizik deneyinde bir kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131n\u0131n P \u015fiddetinde bir parlakl\u0131kla P+x \u015fiddetinde bir parlakl\u0131k aras\u0131nda bir fark alg\u0131lamazken P ile P+2x aras\u0131nda fark alg\u0131lamas\u0131 tabi\u00ee ki kendi i\u00e7inde \u00f6nemli bir bulgudur ancak bu eylemde herhangi bir senteze dayal\u0131 i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc s\u00f6z konusu de\u011fildir. Duncker\u2019\u0131n tabiriyle, kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131 bu \u201cmant\u0131ks\u0131zl\u0131k\u201d kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda \u015fa\u015f\u0131rsa da olsa olsa sinir sistemini bunun su\u00e7lusu olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcr. Burada, a > c\u2019dekine benzer bir sentezlemeye yer yoktur. Sentezi tart\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu b\u00f6l\u00fcmde Duncker ilgin\u00e7 bir \u00f6nermede daha bulunur. Analiz, Kantiyen bir tahlil ve mant\u0131k silsilesi i\u00e7erirken, Duncker\u2019a g\u00f6re sentez, do\u011frudan d\u0131\u015ftaki uyaranlar\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcnden do\u011far. Bunun da Husserl\u2019in fenomenolojisiyle uyumlu oldu\u011funu belirtir. Bug\u00fcnden bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda bunun James J. Gibson\u2019\u0131n do\u011frudan alg\u0131 \u00f6nermesiyle de uyumlu oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yleyebiliriz. Duncker\u2019a g\u00f6re bu sentezi do\u011frudan g\u00f6rme\/sezme becerisi hem genellik hem de g\u00fcvenirlik vasf\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131r. Bunu \u00e7ok g\u00fczel bir \u00f6rnekle anlat\u0131r. Bir uzam i\u00e7inde bir ev, bir a\u011fa\u00e7 ve bir insan\u0131 g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fczde an\u0131nda evin a\u011fa\u00e7tan, a\u011fac\u0131n insandan b\u00fcy\u00fck oldu\u011funu kavrar\u0131z. Ama daha da ilginci, bunun ard\u0131ndan bir vazo, bir hokka (m\u00fcrekkep \u015fi\u015fesi) ve bir silgiye bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda yine an\u0131nda, do\u011frudan, demin g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz ili\u015fkiselli\u011fi (vazo > hokka > silgi) deneyimleriz. Bu tarz sentezler kimi zaman, deminki \u00f6rnekteki gibi, kolayd\u0131r, herkes\u00e7e eri\u015filirdir, kimi zaman ise daha zordur. \u00d6rne\u011fin, herhangi bir \u00fc\u00e7genin i\u00e7 a\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n toplam\u0131n\u0131n 180 derece olmas\u0131 nas\u0131l \u201cbilinir\u201d? Burada kritik olan \u015fey, kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131ya bir \u00fc\u00e7gen sunuldu\u011funda o \u00fc\u00e7genle k\u0131s\u0131tlanm\u0131\u015f kalmay\u0131p onu yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rarak, belki yeni uzant\u0131lar ekleyip yepyeni bir a\u00e7\u0131dan, bir istikametten bakabilmesidir (\u015eekil 8). Bunu ba\u015fard\u0131\u011f\u0131 an sorunun cevab\u0131 zaten uyarandan do\u011frudan \u201cokunabilecektir\u201d.12<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 8<\/strong> (Duncker, 1935)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Matematikteki \u00f6rnekte s\u00f6z konusu olan, mevcut ve de\u011fi\u015fmez bir hakikat iken, Duncker\u2019a g\u00f6re benzer bir do\u011frudan sentezi g\u00fcndelik hayatta da g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. \u00d6rne\u011fin bir oda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnelim der. Odan\u0131n bir ucunda bir soba, soban\u0131n tam kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda kap\u0131 ve kap\u0131n\u0131n hemen yan\u0131nda bir komodin vard\u0131r. Bu durumda, sobadan kap\u0131ya her y\u00fcr\u00fcy\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde, ki\u015fi gayriihtiyari komodinin \u00e7ok yak\u0131n\u0131ndan ge\u00e7ecektir. Bu da bir do\u011frudan kavray\u0131\u015f, b\u00fct\u00fcnsel bir alg\u0131 ve bu \u015fekliyle bir tip sentezdir Duncker\u2019a g\u00f6re. Do\u011fal olarak buradaki, geometri \u00f6rne\u011findeki gibi mutlak, de\u011fi\u015fmez bir konumlan\u0131\u015f de\u011fildir. Odada e\u015fyalar hasbelkader bu \u015fekilde d\u00fczenlendi\u011fi i\u00e7in bedenin uzamsal ili\u015fkileni\u015fi b\u00f6yledir.13<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6\u011frenme ve K\u0131smi \u0130\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Duncker, \u00f6\u011frenme s\u00fcrecinde canl\u0131n\u0131n, de\u011fi\u015fmezlik vasf\u0131na sahip ili\u015fkiler ile \u00f6yle olmayanlar\u0131 ay\u0131rt edebilmesi gerekti\u011fini belirtir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, kimi etkiler ve tepkiler aras\u0131nda belirli bir istikrar varsa burada de\u011fi\u015fmezlik vasf\u0131na sahip bir ili\u015fki s\u00f6z konusudur. \u00d6te yandan uzam-zaman\u0131n i\u00e7indeki bir ili\u015fkiler a\u011f\u0131, illaki her \u015feyiyle anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmak zorunda de\u011fildir. Duncker\u2019\u0131n buna ili\u015fkin verdi\u011fi \u00f6rnek t\u0131ptand\u0131r. Ger\u00e7ekten de hem o d\u00f6nem hem halen t\u0131ptaki bir\u00e7ok uygulama \u201ci\u015fler\u201d ancak ger\u00e7ek anlamda tam olarak hangi \u00e7oklu etkile\u015fimlerle i\u015fledi\u011fi me\u00e7huldur. Onun i\u00e7in \u00f6rne\u011fin ila\u00e7lar\u0131n yan etkileri ancak kullan\u0131ld\u0131k\u00e7a tespit edilir, hatta etkili oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen kimi ila\u00e7lar y\u0131llar sonra piyasadan kalkar \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc asl\u0131nda etkili olmad\u0131klar\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu etkiler ba\u015ftan bilin(e)mez \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bedene giren ilac\u0131n o karma\u015f\u0131k sistemle nas\u0131l etkile\u015fece\u011fi bilinmemektedir. De\u011fi\u015fmez olan\u0131n ke\u015ffi ise \u00e7ok\u00e7a de\u011fi\u015fmez ili\u015fkilerin ke\u015ffidir. Duncker burada da, ilk olarak felsefeci Christian von Ehrenfels taraf\u0131ndan ortaya at\u0131lan \u201cGestaltsqualit\u00e4t (Ge\u015ftalt \u00f6zelli\u011fi)\u201d kavram\u0131na at\u0131fta bulunur. Nas\u0131l ki \u015eekil 9a\u2019daki \u00fc\u00e7gen tepetaklak edildi\u011finde (\u015eekil 9b) halen ayn\u0131 \u00fc\u00e7gendir \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc kenarlar aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki sabittir, benzer \u015fekilde do\u011fada da bu tarz de\u011fi\u015fmez kalan ili\u015fkiler vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 9a<\/strong> (Wiki commons) ve \u015eekil 9b<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Buradaki en \u00f6nemli soru, saydaml\u0131ktan yoksun bir problem kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda \u00f6\u011frenmenin nas\u0131l ger\u00e7ekle\u015fece\u011fidir. Duncker, Huang\u2019\u0131n 1931 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131ndan \u00f6rnek verir. Farkl\u0131 ya\u015flardaki \u00e7ocuklar \u00e7e\u015fitli k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck nesnelerin suyla dolu bir kaba konmas\u0131n\u0131 izler. Nesnelerin metal olanlar\u0131 batar, olmayanlar\u0131 batmaz. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n kritik k\u0131sm\u0131nda \u00e7ocu\u011fun g\u00f6z\u00fc \u00f6n\u00fcnde metal bir i\u011fne, batmayacak \u015fekilde suya konur (\u201cy\u00fczen i\u011fne deneyi\u201d\/\u201dfloating needle experiment\u201d). \u00c7ocuk \u015fa\u015f\u0131r\u0131r ve kendisine i\u011fnenin neden batmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 soruldu\u011funda bu saydaml\u0131ktan yoksun durum kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda kendince nedenler bulmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131r. Bu noktada bir grup \u00e7ocuk i\u011fnenin hep y\u00fczeyde kalacak \u015fekilde suya konu\u015funu izler, di\u011fer bir grup ise bazen batacak bazen batmayacak \u015fekildeki konu\u015funa tan\u0131k olur.14 \u0130kinci gruptaki \u00e7ocuklarda \u00f6\u011frenme g\u00fc\u00e7le\u015fir \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc de\u011fi\u015fmezlik ilkesi ihlal edilmi\u015ftir. Bir ba\u015fka \u00f6rne\u011fi K\u00f6hler\u2019in bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131ndan verir. \u015eempanzelerin \u00f6n\u00fcne farkl\u0131 koyulukta iki gri pe\u00e7ete ve her birinin \u00fcst\u00fcne konmu\u015f yiyecek sunulur. \u00d6\u011frenmeleri gereken \u015fey, her sunulu\u015fta, daha a\u00e7\u0131k renkli olan pe\u00e7etedeki yiyece\u011fi yemektir. Pe\u00e7etelerin koyuluklar\u0131 s\u00fcrekli de\u011fi\u015fir ancak de\u011fi\u015fmeyen, onlardan birinin hep di\u011ferinden daha a\u00e7\u0131k renkli olu\u015fudur. \u015eempanzelerin denemeden denemeye yapt\u0131klar\u0131 hatal\u0131 se\u00e7imleri g\u00f6steren grafik ilk ba\u015flarda ini\u015fli \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015fl\u0131 giderken denemelerin birinde birden hata say\u0131s\u0131 esasl\u0131 bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f g\u00f6sterir. \u0130\u015fte bu an, \u201ci\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc\u201d an\u0131d\u0131r ve bu \u00f6\u011frenme ortam\u0131n\u0131n mu\u011flakl\u0131\u011f\u0131na ra\u011fmen ger\u00e7ekle\u015febilmi\u015ftir \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ke\u015ffi zor da olsa de\u011fi\u015fmez bir \u015fey mevcuttur, o da nispeten daha a\u00e7\u0131k renkli olan pe\u00e7etenin se\u00e7ilmesidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Do\u011fan\u0131n bar\u0131nd\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131n neden-sonu\u00e7 ili\u015fkileri. <\/em><\/strong>Duncker\u2019a g\u00f6re do\u011fadaki neden sonu\u00e7 ili\u015fkilerinin ortak bir y\u00f6n\u00fc, Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n yak\u0131nl\u0131k ilkesini bar\u0131nd\u0131rmalar\u0131d\u0131r. Bunun ise iki farkl\u0131 tezah\u00fcr\u00fc oldu\u011fundan bahseder. Biri fenomenaldir, \u00f6rne\u011fin bir el \u015faltere basar ve \u0131\u015f\u0131k s\u00f6ner. Bunu g\u00f6zlemleyen canl\u0131 bir m\u00fcddet sonra \u015faltere basma hareketiyle \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n s\u00f6nmesi aras\u0131nda nedensel bir ili\u015fki kurar. Di\u011feri ise daha do\u011frudand\u0131r, \u00f6rne\u011fin birinin eliyle tahtaya vurmas\u0131yla ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan vuru\u015f sesi. Bunu g\u00f6zlemleyen canl\u0131 bu ikisi aras\u0131nda yine bir nedensel ili\u015fki kurar, \u00fcstelik bu sefer, etki ile tepki, \u00f6nceki \u00f6rne\u011fe g\u00f6re \u00e7ok daha do\u011frudan bir ili\u015fkiye sahiptir (elin tahtaya de\u011fme an\u0131 ile sesin elin de\u011fdi\u011fi noktadan geli\u015fi). Her ikisinde ortak olan ise, neden-sonu\u00e7 olarak alg\u0131lanan\u0131n pe\u015f pe\u015fe zuhur etmesidir. Belki bundand\u0131r ki insan olarak bizler yap\u0131lan bir hareketin uzun soluklu etkisini o harekete ba\u011flamakta zorlan\u0131r\u0131z. Do\u011faya yap\u0131lan herhangi bir m\u00fcdahalenin binbir \u00e7e\u015fit etkisinin, hemen de\u011fil, ancak ad\u0131m ad\u0131m ve zamana yay\u0131larak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131ndan dolay\u0131 o ba\u011f bir\u00e7ok ki\u015fi taraf\u0131ndan bir t\u00fcrl\u00fc kavranamaz. \u00d6rne\u011fin iklim krizinin ancak on y\u0131llar sonra, etkileri giderek daha barizle\u015fip say\u0131salla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labildikten, yani daha g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr k\u0131l\u0131nd\u0131ktan sonra anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 buna ba\u011flanabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n yard\u0131m\u0131yla sorunlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zme. <\/em><\/strong>Duncker bu ba\u015fl\u0131k alt\u0131nda bebeklerden \u00f6rnek verir. Bebeklerin her \u015feyi tutmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ve onlar\u0131 sa\u011fa sola savurup f\u0131rlatmalar\u0131 veya farkl\u0131 nesnelere vurmalar\u0131 \u00f6nemli bir i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel davran\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu davran\u0131\u015f ad\u0131m ad\u0131m ara\u00e7 kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenmek, ke\u015ffetmek i\u00e7in bir olmazsa olmazd\u0131r. Duncker, i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel davran\u0131\u015flarda t\u00fcrler aras\u0131ndaki farkl\u0131l\u0131klara da i\u015faret eder. Kargalar i\u00e7in, \u00f6rne\u011fin, ula\u015fmak istedikleri yiyeceklerin \u00f6n\u00fcndeki \u00e7al\u0131 \u00e7\u0131rp\u0131 gibi engelleri kald\u0131rmak kolayken, K\u00f6hler\u2019\u0131n bulgular\u0131na dayanarak \u015fempanzelerin bunda zorland\u0131\u011f\u0131na dikkat \u00e7eker. Kargalar\u0131n buradaki ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 ise onlar\u0131n i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel \u201cyiyecek saklama\u201d yetisiyle ili\u015fkilendirir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Arama-Bulma<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu konuya ili\u015fkin de Duncker\u2019\u0131n keskin g\u00f6zlemleri vard\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin herhangi bir kalem arad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda (1) onu bulabilece\u011fimizi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz bir alanda arar\u0131z, yani arama sahas\u0131n\u0131 belirleriz, (2) ararken g\u00f6zlerimiz \u201ckalem gibi\u201d bir \u015feklin taramas\u0131n\u0131 yapar, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla saha taran\u0131rken o imgeye uymayan nesneler g\u00f6r\u00fcnmez bile, benze\u015fenlere ise g\u00f6z tak\u0131l\u0131r ve nihayet, e\u011fer diyelim masada bir kalem varsa, aranan ile bulunan aras\u0131nda bir \u201crezonans\u201d olu\u015fur; kalem bulunmu\u015ftur. Bazen ise aranan\u0131n imgesi mevcut de\u011fildir, bir t\u00fcrl\u00fc akla gelmeyen bir s\u00f6zc\u00fckte olabildi\u011fi gibi. Bir \u00f6rnek d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnelim, bir arkada\u015f\u0131m\u0131za bir \u015fey anlat\u0131rken \u201cger\u00e7i \u00e7ok da matah biri de\u011fildir\u201d demek isteriz ancak akl\u0131m\u0131zdaki ba\u011fla\u00e7 \u201cger\u00e7i\u201d de\u011fildir, oraya daha g\u00fczel uyacak bir s\u00f6zc\u00fckt\u00fcr. S\u00f6zc\u00fck akl\u0131m\u0131za gelmez ama biliriz ki \u201cger\u00e7i\u201d gibi iki heceli de\u011fil tek hecelidir o arad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z s\u00f6zc\u00fck. Hatta flu bir ses ak\u0131\u015f\u0131 da vard\u0131r (daha uzun s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerde hatta ak\u0131\u015f ritmi) ama \u00f6yle fludur ki o da \u00e7ok yard\u0131mc\u0131 olmaz. Derken bir m\u00fcddet sonra birden akl\u0131m\u0131za gelir, arad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z s\u00f6zc\u00fck \u201cho\u015f\u201dtur. Buradaki \u201cflu imge\u201d ilgin\u00e7 bir durumdur, \u00f6zellikle kimi i\u015fitsel ipu\u00e7lar\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131mas\u0131 itibariyle. Bu, \u201cdilimin ucunda\u201d fenomeniyle kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmamal\u0131d\u0131r \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu \u00f6rnekte aranan s\u00f6zc\u00fck dilin ucunda de\u011fildir, hatta o bo\u015flu\u011fa girecek s\u00f6zc\u00fck hakk\u0131nda asl\u0131nda o kadar yetersiz bilgi vard\u0131r ki asla bulamayaca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr\u00fcz. Buradaki arama-bulma, bildi\u011fimiz bir kalemi aray\u0131p bulmaktan farkl\u0131d\u0131r. Ama genel s\u00fcre\u00e7 yine de benzerdir, tek fark, aranan\u0131n yaln\u0131zca tan\u0131nmas\u0131 (kalem) ile aranan\u0131n hat\u0131rlanmas\u0131 (\u201cho\u015f\u201d s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc) aras\u0131ndaki farkt\u0131r. Di\u011fer yandan \u201cdilimin ucunda\u201d olgusuna dair Duncker g\u00fczel bir \u00f6rnek sunar. Diyelim ki bir ki\u015fi, \u201cZaman\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n Bir Kahraman\u0131\u201d roman\u0131n\u0131n yazar\u0131 kimdir sorusunun cevab\u0131n\u0131 hat\u0131rlamaz ama isminin \u00fc\u00e7 heceli oldu\u011funu ve \u201cov\u201d ile bitti\u011fini bilir. Do\u011fru cevap hakikaten de Lermontov\u2019dur. 1960\u2019larda Amerikan eksenli psikoloji bu tarz \u00fcstbili\u015fsel olgular\u0131 k\u00e2le al\u0131p deneyler yapmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lara \u00f6rne\u011fin yaln\u0131zca (belki zaman k\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan?), bir bilgi sorusunun cevab\u0131n\u0131 bilip bilmediklerini, bilmediklerini belirttiklerinde ise s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, diyelim 7\u2019li likert \u00f6l\u00e7e\u011finde, bir tan\u0131ma testinde bulabilme olas\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 belirtmeleri istenir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla \u00e7ok basit ve \u00f6zet iki say\u0131salla\u015ft\u0131rma vard\u0131r, (1) bilip bilmeme, (2) kesinlikle tan\u0131r\u0131m-kesinlikle tan\u0131yamam yelpazesinde bir derece rakam\u0131. Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131ndan yola \u00e7\u0131kan biri ise bu tarz bir deneyde mutlaka kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131dan o s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc nas\u0131l arad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, hangi ipu\u00e7lar\u0131na sahip oldu\u011funu ve benzeri ek sorular sorar. Ve do\u011fal olarak bunlar kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131dan kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131ya de\u011fi\u015fecektir, bu farkl\u0131l\u0131klar ise onlar\u0131n cevab\u0131 bulma s\u00fcrelerini etkileyecek bir unsur olacakt\u0131r. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131ya etkin, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen, merak eden bir canl\u0131 olarak de\u011fil, h\u0131zl\u0131 veri sunan biri olarak bakan bir ara\u015ft\u0131rma perspektifinde bu tarz incelemeler ne yaz\u0131k ki \u0131skalanmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130mge \u0130n\u015fas\u0131<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Do\u011fal olarak problem \u00e7\u00f6zmede, imge olu\u015fturma yetisi kritiktir. Bunlar illaki bilindik, deneyimlenmi\u015f imgeler olmak zorunda de\u011fil. Duncker\u2019\u0131n \u00f6rne\u011fini verecek olursak, \u201cMasan\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde, gagas\u0131nda sigaras\u0131, sar\u0131 bir karga hayal et\u201d dendi\u011finde insanlar genelde bunu rahatl\u0131kla yapar. Yepyeni imgeleri hayal etme yetisinin, yarat\u0131c\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme i\u00e7in en kritik \u00f6gelerden oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnebiliriz. Bunun g\u00fczel bir \u00f6rne\u011fini, bir sonraki b\u00f6l\u00fcmde bahsini edece\u011fimiz, matematik alan\u0131n\u0131n en prestijli \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fc olan Field Madalyas\u0131 sahibi Maryam Mirzakhani\u2019de g\u00f6rebiliriz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Duncker\u2019\u0131n Deneylerinden Bir \u00d6rnek: Kutu Problemi<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Duncker\u2019\u0131n, problem \u00e7\u00f6zme alan\u0131nda Amerikan psikolojisine en \u00e7ok etki eden \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131, \u201ckutu problemi\u201ddir. Problem \u015fu \u015fekilde kurgulan\u0131r: Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131ya, g\u00f6rsel deneyler i\u00e7in kap\u0131ya, g\u00f6z hizas\u0131nda, \u00fc\u00e7 tane mumun monte edilmesi gerekti\u011fi s\u00f6ylenir. Odada bir masan\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde karman \u00e7orman duran bir\u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck mandal, ka\u011f\u0131t par\u00e7alar\u0131, iplikler, kur\u015fun kalemleri, k\u00fcl tablalar\u0131, tahta par\u00e7alar\u0131, al\u00fcminyum ka\u011f\u0131d\u0131, boru kelep\u00e7eleri ve eskimi\u015f cihaz par\u00e7alar\u0131 gibi \u201c\u0131v\u0131r z\u0131v\u0131r\u201d bulunur. Bir de aralar\u0131na serpi\u015ftirilmi\u015f raptiyeler ve farkl\u0131 \u015fekillerde konumlanm\u0131\u015f, birbirinden \u015fekil ve renk olarak hafif farkl\u0131, \u00fc\u00e7 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kibrit kutusu benzeri karton kutucuk vard\u0131r. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131ya, masadaki istedi\u011fi nesneleri istedi\u011fi gibi kullanabilece\u011fi s\u00f6ylenir ve problemi \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 her \u015feyi, ni\u00e7in \u00f6yle yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, neleri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, neyi tasarlad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 anlata anlata yapmas\u0131 istenir. Deneyin de\u011fi\u015fkenlerine ge\u00e7meden \u00f6nce bu deneyin \u0130ngilizce kaynaklar\u0131nda \u201cmum problemi\u201d olarak ge\u00e7ti\u011fini, d\u00fczene\u011fin zihinde daha kolay canland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in talihsizce olu\u015fturulan g\u00f6rsellerin (\u015eekil 10a ve 10b) ise bu d\u00fczene\u011fi hi\u00e7bir \u015fekilde yans\u0131tmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, meselenin en kritik \u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc t\u00fcm\u00fcyle \u0131skalad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtmek gerekir. Daha da k\u00f6t\u00fcs\u00fc, kimi makalelerde ve hatta kitaplarda d\u00fczene\u011fin o resme uygun olarak anlat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz (\u00f6rn., Ashby, Isen ve Turken, 1999; Halpern, 2013; Isen, Daubman ve Nowicki, 1987; Lubarsky ve Thomas, 2020). Hatta kimi makalenin oda\u011f\u0131 Duncker\u2019\u0131n \u201cmum problemi\u201d olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen problem eksik ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla yanl\u0131\u015f aktar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (\u00f6rn., Glucksberg ve Weisberg, 1966; Weisberg ve Suls, 1973; bkz. \u015eekil 10c ve 10d). Oysa burada Almanca asl\u0131ndan okuyup aktard\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z bu kapsaml\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, sadece on y\u0131ll\u0131k bir gecikmeyle 1945 y\u0131l\u0131nda Psychological Monograph\u2019ta Lynne S. Lees\u2019in terc\u00fcmesiyle eksiksiz olarak \u0130ngilizceye aktar\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. San\u0131r\u0131m g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde ancak Almanca orjinal makaleyi veya \u0130ngilizce 1945 terc\u00fcmesini okumu\u015f olan problem \u00e7\u00f6zme ve yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k uzmanlar\u0131 bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n asl\u0131nda ne yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n fark\u0131ndad\u0131r. Karl Duncker\u2019\u0131n me\u015fhur kutu\/mum probleminin \u0130ngilizce bilimsel literat\u00fcr\u00fcnde u\u011frad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bozunumlar\u0131n incelenmesi bile ba\u015fl\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131na ilgin\u00e7 bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma olurdu herhalde.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 10a<\/strong> (Kaynak: http:\/\/2012e.igem.org\/Team:Arizona_State_E\/Candle<\/a> )<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"\"\/
\u015eekil 10b<\/strong> (Kaynak: Wiki commons) ve \u015eekil 10c<\/strong> (Weisberg ve Suls, 1973)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"\"\/
\u015eekil 10d<\/strong> (Glucksberg & Weisberg, 1966)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Duncker\u2019\u0131n kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fczenekte, sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zebilecek kritik nesneler (\u00fc\u00e7 kibrit kutusu ve raptiyeler) o kar\u0131\u015f\u0131k d\u00fczen i\u00e7inde, masan\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcnde g\u00f6ze batmayacak \u015fekilde yerle\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. \u00d6te yandan can al\u0131c\u0131 manip\u00fclasyon, K\u00f6hler\u2019in \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131ndaki a\u011faca \u201cba\u011fl\u0131\u201d duran a\u011fa\u00e7 dal\u0131na benzerdir. Hat\u0131rlayacak olursak, K\u00f6hler\u2019in bir d\u00fczene\u011finde, \u015fempanzenin kafesin uza\u011f\u0131nda eliyle eri\u015femedi\u011fi muzu kendine do\u011fru \u00e7ekmek i\u00e7in sopaya benzer uzunca bir \u015feye ihtiyac\u0131 vard\u0131r ancak g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrde o uzunlukta bir nesne yoktur. Bu durum \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcms\u00fczd\u00fcr ta ki a\u011faca bak\u0131l\u0131p a\u011fa\u00e7taki bir dal\u0131n art\u0131k a\u011fac\u0131n ayr\u0131lmaz bir par\u00e7as\u0131 olarak de\u011fil, a\u011fa\u00e7tan ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131labilen (kopar\u0131labilen) ve ard\u0131ndan bir sopa gibi kullan\u0131labilen bir nesne oldu\u011fu ke\u015ffedilene kadar. Bu tarz yap\u0131sal \u201cba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k\u201d15 yan\u0131nda, i\u015fleve dayal\u0131 \u201cba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k\u201dlar da vard\u0131r. Bir cetvelin birincil, en belirgin ve \u201cu\u011fruna geli\u015ftirildi\u011fi\u201d i\u015flevi uzunluk \u00f6l\u00e7mek iken o cetvelin pek\u00e2l\u00e2 bir ritim enstr\u00fcman\u0131 olarak kullan\u0131labilmesi buna \u00f6rnektir. Duncker deney serisinde bu i\u015flevsel ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k ve onun do\u011furabilece\u011fi fiksasyona odaklan\u0131r. Deneylerde s\u0131ras\u0131yla be\u015f farkl\u0131 problem sunulur. Esas de\u011fi\u015fken, kritik nesnenin i\u015flevsel ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 peki\u015ftirecek bir d\u00fczene\u011fin olmas\u0131 veya olmamas\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin burada, Duncker\u2019\u0131n en yayg\u0131n at\u0131f yap\u0131lan problemi oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in oda\u011f\u0131m\u0131za ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z kutu probleminde kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n yar\u0131s\u0131na verilen kibrit kutusu benzeri kutular\u0131n her birinin i\u00e7i doludur. Birinin i\u00e7inde monte edilmesi istenen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck ince mumlardan vard\u0131r, di\u011ferinin i\u00e7inde yine \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm i\u00e7in kritik nesne olan raptiyeler, \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn i\u00e7inde ise kibritler vard\u0131r. Bu ko\u015ful, ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n peki\u015ftirildi\u011fi ko\u015fuldur (pB) \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc kutular\u0131n as\u0131l bilinen \u201cbir \u015feyi i\u00e7inde bar\u0131nd\u0131rma\u201d i\u015flevi g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr k\u0131l\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n di\u011fer yar\u0131s\u0131 i\u00e7inse kutular\u0131n i\u00e7leri bo\u015ftur, s\u00f6z konusu nesneler masada serbest\u00e7e serpi\u015ftirilmi\u015f olarak durmaktad\u0131r (\u2310pB). Kritik soru, birinci gruptakilerin \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme varma konusunda ikinci gruba g\u00f6re daha zorlan\u0131p zorlanmayacaklar\u0131d\u0131r. Ayn\u0131 iki tip ko\u015ful di\u011fer d\u00f6rt problem i\u00e7in de uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.16 Deneyin desenine g\u00f6re kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n yar\u0131s\u0131, problem 1 (pB), problem 2 (\u2310pB), problem 3 (pB), problem 4 (\u2310pB), problem 5 (pB) \u015feklindeki d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcml\u00fc diziyle test edilirken, di\u011fer yar\u0131s\u0131 problem 1 (\u2310pB), problem 2 (pB), problem 3 (\u2310pB), problem 4 (pB), problem 5 (\u2310pB) dizisiyle test edilir. Ana ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fken \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclen problem say\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r. E\u011fer kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131 \u00fc\u00e7 dakika i\u00e7inde bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm \u00fcretememi\u015f ve art\u0131k isteksiz ve fikir \u00fcretmez hale geldiyse bir sonraki probleme ge\u00e7ilir. Deneyin bulgular\u0131 Tablo 2\u2019deki gibidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u00c7al\u0131\u015fmada nicel verilerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra nitel veriler de toplan\u0131r. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n s\u00f6yledikleri tezleri destekler cinsten olur: Peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k i\u00e7inde olan nesne(ler)e ili\u015fkin \u00f6rne\u011fin deney y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcc\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn deney bitiminde \u201cneden kutular\u0131 mum altl\u0131\u011f\u0131 olarak kullanmay\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmediniz?\u201d sorusuna \u201cama o raptiyelerin kutusuydu\u201d benzeri cevaplar al\u0131n\u0131r. Yani bir tip i\u015flev sabitli\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Sonu\u00e7 olarak peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k d\u00fczene\u011finde kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n ba\u015far\u0131 oran\u0131, peki\u015ftirilmemi\u015f d\u00fczene\u011fe g\u00f6re yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 40 oran\u0131nda daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckt\u00fcr. Bir ba\u015fka deneyde kutucuklar\u0131n i\u00e7inde bu sefer kritik \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm \u00f6geleri yerine d\u00fc\u011fmeler ve benzeri alakas\u0131z objeler konur. Bu durumda kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme ula\u015fmada daha da zorland\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6zlemenir. Bunun olas\u0131 nedenini Duncker, kritik \u00f6gelerin (mum ve raptiyeler) ara\u00e7sal olan \u00f6geden (kutular) uzak kalm\u0131\u015f olmalar\u0131na ba\u011flar. Kutular\u0131n i\u00e7inde mumlar, raptiyeler ve kibritler oldu\u011funda kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n onlarla oynarken \u201ckutunun\u201d yak\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n da yard\u0131m\u0131yla bir ili\u015fki hissiyat\u0131n\u0131n do\u011fabildi\u011finden bahseder. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131 sesli d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrken \u201ca, mumu kutunun zeminine yerle\u015ftirebilirim ve bu haliyle kap\u0131ya raptiyeleyebilirim\u201d i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn, rastgele yap\u0131lan davran\u0131\u015flar esnas\u0131nda belirebildi\u011fi g\u00f6zlemlenir. \u00d6te yandan, kutular\u0131n i\u00e7i bo\u015f oldu\u011funda \u201cmuhafaza etme\u201d i\u015flevi daha az g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr, bo\u015f zemin hali ise daha g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrd\u00fcr ve bundan dolay\u0131 bu peki\u015ftirilmemi\u015f ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k ko\u015fulunda \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcme ula\u015fmak kolayla\u015f\u0131r. \u00d6zetle, bu deneylerde Duncker, aynen K\u00f6hler\u2019in \u015fempanzelerle y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalardaki gibi, problemlerin g\u00f6rsel yerle\u015ftirmelerinin \u00e7ok kritik oldu\u011funa dikkat \u00e7eker. Duncker, kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 farkl\u0131 farkl\u0131 problemlerin peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f ve peki\u015ftirilmemi\u015f ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k ko\u015fullar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki ba\u015far\u0131 oranlar\u0131na da bakar ve neden kimi problemde peki\u015ftirilmi\u015f ko\u015fullar\u0131n misli daha k\u00f6t\u00fc performansa yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 yine ilgin\u00e7 g\u00f6rsel analizlerle anlamland\u0131rmaya koyulur. Bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra as\u0131l i\u015fleviyle de\u011fil farkl\u0131 bir i\u015flevle kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 gereken bir nesnenin, o yeni i\u015flev i\u00e7in bir de \u201cdeforme edilmesi\u201d gerekiyorsa (\u00f6rne\u011fin, ata\u015f probleminde ata\u015f\u0131n b\u00fck\u00fcl\u00fcp kan\u00e7a haline getirilmesi) bunun ek bir zorlu\u011fa yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir. Keza bir nesnenin birden fazla i\u015flevle kullan\u0131m s\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da kritik bir fakt\u00f6rd\u00fcr. Kimi nesneler g\u00fcndelik hayat i\u00e7inde yaln\u0131zca tek bir i\u015flevle kullan\u0131l\u0131rken kimileri birden fazla i\u015flevle kullan\u0131l\u0131r, bu da ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k derecesini etkileyecek bir fakt\u00f6rd\u00fcr. Yukar\u0131daki cetvel \u00f6rne\u011fimizi ele al\u0131rsak, bir cetvel, as\u0131l i\u015flevi olan uzunluk \u00f6l\u00e7menin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra \u00f6rne\u011fin birine vurmak \u00fczere bir sopa olarak da kullan\u0131lageliyorsa bu, cetvelin bir ritim aleti olarak kullan\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 da kolayla\u015ft\u0131racakt\u0131r.17<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bir Matematik\u00e7inin Zihni: Maryam Mirzakhani (1977\u20132017)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131n \u201c\u00fcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme\u201dye dair s\u00f6yledikleri insana, yarat\u0131c\u0131, kal\u0131plar\u0131 k\u0131r\u0131p d\u0131\u015f\u0131na ta\u015fabilen zihinleri an\u0131msat\u0131yor. Nitekim Wertheimer da 1945 tarihli \u201cProductive Thinking (\u00dcretken D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme)\u201d kitab\u0131nda \u00fc\u00e7 ki\u015finin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bi\u00e7imini tahlil eder, Gauss, Galileo ve dostu Einstein. Bu vesileyle, 2014 y\u0131l\u0131nda Riemann y\u00fczeylerinin dinami\u011fi ve geometrisi \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131yla matematik alan\u0131n\u0131n en prestijli \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fc Field Madalyas\u0131\u2019n\u0131 alan18 ve talihsizce 2017 y\u0131l\u0131nda meme kanserinden \u00f6len \u0130ranl\u0131 matematik\u00e7i Maryam Mirzakhani\u2019nin bahsini etmek isterim. G\u00fcn\u00fcn birinde Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131 kavram\u0131\u015f ve uzmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme olan bir bilimcinin Mirzakhani\u2019nin yarat\u0131c\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme tarz\u0131n\u0131n analizi yapmas\u0131n\u0131 dilerim. Beni bu b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc eklemeye iten, Mirzakhani hakk\u0131nda yak\u0131n zamanda \u00e7\u0131kan \u201cSecrets of the Surface: The Vision of Maryam Mirzakhani (Y\u00fczeyin S\u0131rlar\u0131: Maryam Mirzakhani\u2019nin \u0130mgelemi)\u201d19 isimli bir belgesel film oldu. Belgeselde gen\u00e7 matematik\u00e7inin okul arkada\u015flar\u0131, meslekta\u015flar\u0131 ve doktora \u00f6\u011frencileri, onun \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 problemlerle ne \u015fekilde ili\u015fkilendi\u011fini, ne gibi yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rmalarla \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlere ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 anlat\u0131r. Dinlerken bana \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 gelen ve yukar\u0131da bahsetti\u011fimiz Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131yla \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir \u015fekilde \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm k\u0131s\u0131mlardan \u00f6rnekler s\u0131ralamak isterim. Do\u011fal olarak ama\u00e7, matematik\u00e7ilerin \u00e7ok daha iyi bilece\u011fi ve kavrayaca\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce i\u00e7eriklerinden \u00e7ok d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bi\u00e7imine odaklanmakt\u0131r. Mirzakhani bir problem \u00fczerine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrken meslekta\u015f\u0131 ona \u201cne yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 biliyor musun?\u201d diye sorar, Mirzakhani \u201cyok bilmiyorum\u201d der. Matematik ve fizik \u00f6\u011fretmeni arkada\u015f\u0131 Mahshid Pourmand \u201cd\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyordu ve hi\u00e7bir yere varam\u0131yordu\u201d ifadesini kullan\u0131r. Bu tarz t\u0131kan\u0131kl\u0131klarda bir\u00e7ok ki\u015fi aray\u0131\u015f\u0131 sonland\u0131r\u0131rken, \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc bulma umudunu veya inad\u0131n\u0131 kaybetmemi\u015f bir ki\u015finin zihni ilgin\u00e7 bir \u015fekilde aray\u0131\u015fa devam eder. Derken bir g\u00fcn \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm belirir ve belki de en beklenmedik anda ve yerde. Mirzakhan\u0131\u2019ye ili\u015fkin bir doktora \u00f6\u011frencisinin s\u00f6yledi\u011fi \u015fu s\u00f6zler \u00f6nemlidir: \u201cMaryam b\u00fct\u00fcn bu farkl\u0131 farkl\u0131 alanlar\u0131n etkilerini g\u00f6r\u00fcrd\u00fc. O alanlar\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 anlamak yerine, onlar\u0131n hepsinin, birbiriyle ili\u015fkileni\u015fine odaklan\u0131rd\u0131.\u201d Belki de Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan en g\u00fczel tarifi Maryam Mirzakhani\u2019nin Harvard \u00dcniversitesi\u2019nden bir profes\u00f6r meslekta\u015f\u0131 dile getirir: \u201c\u00d6ylesine geli\u015fkin matematiksel hik\u00e2yeler tarif etmeye ba\u015flard\u0131 ki bu anlat\u0131lar neredeyse bilim kurgu gibiydi. Bir nevi \u00f6nden ke\u015ffedilecek olan teorinin \u015feklini zihninde canland\u0131rmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rd\u0131.\u201d Maryam Mirzakhani\u2019nin \u015eekil 11\u2019deki \u00e7izimlerine bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda burada adeta nas\u0131l bir zihin ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bi\u00e7iminin oldu\u011funa dair ipu\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Belki g\u00fcn\u00fcn birinde ana ak\u0131m d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme psikolojisi, bu tarz kal\u0131p d\u0131\u015f\u0131, yarat\u0131c\u0131, dahi zihinlerin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bi\u00e7imlerini yapt\u0131klar\u0131 yaz\u0131\u00e7iziler \u00fczerinden ele almay\u0131 ak\u0131l eder. San\u0131r\u0131m bili\u015fsel psikoloji bu tarz bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma y\u00f6ntemine e\u011filirse \u015fu ana kadar yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k konusunda bulunanlardan \u00e7ok daha heyecan verici bulgulara ula\u015facakt\u0131r. Ne de olsa \u201cbir tu\u011flay\u0131 ka\u00e7 farkl\u0131 i\u015flevle kullanabilirsiniz?\u201d gibi sorularla insanlar\u0131n yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclebildi\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek hayli dar bir bak\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu bak\u0131\u015f darl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ana nedeni ise kurams\u0131zl\u0131kt\u0131r; ne de olsa ampirist bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131klamakta en zorland\u0131\u011f\u0131 konu yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131kt\u0131r. Belki bundan dolay\u0131d\u0131r ki bu konu h\u00e2l\u00e2 ana ak\u0131m psikolojinin merkezi konular\u0131 aras\u0131na bir t\u00fcrl\u00fc yerle\u015fememi\u015ftir. Bu da yine \u00fcst\u00fcnde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye de\u011fer bir ilgin\u00e7liktir. Umal\u0131m ki bu durum tez zamanda de\u011fi\u015fir ve g\u00fcn\u00fcn birinde, bildi\u011fimiz kadar\u0131yla insana \u00f6zel olan yarat\u0131c\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme denen muazzam yetinin tam ne oldu\u011funu ve nas\u0131l ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 anlar\u0131z.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 11<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmede Ge\u015ftalt: K\u0131sa Bir De\u011ferlendirme<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130ster \u015fempanzede, ister s\u0131radan deney kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131nda, ister \u201cdahi\u201d diyebilece\u011fimiz ki\u015filerde olsun, \u00fcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmede ortak olan \u015feyin, verili olan\u0131 yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rabilmek oldu\u011funu g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz. Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131, bu yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131rman\u0131n, kuram\u0131n \u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc te\u015fkil eden gruplama ve ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmayla ilgili bir durum oldu\u011funu vurgular. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6zl\u00fckleriyle bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k ve \u00fcretken d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme, verili olarak ayr\u0131lmaz olan\u0131 ay\u0131rabilmek ve verili olarak ayr\u0131 olan\u0131, sezilen veya kavranan ortak bir benzerlik\/ayn\u0131l\u0131k hali \u00fczerinden gruplayabilmek, birlikte bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcp problemin \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcne varmakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Notlar<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

1 Dr. \u00d6\u011fr. \u00dcyesi, Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i \u00dcniversitesi, Psikoloji B\u00f6l\u00fcm, esra.mungan(at)boun.edu.tr, ORCID: 0000\u20130002\u20130435\u20136931<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2 Kitab\u0131n Almanca ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cIntelligenzpr\u00fcfungen an Menschenaffen\u201d. Bunun \u0130ngilizcesi nedense \u201cThe Mentality of Apes\u201d olarak terc\u00fcme edilmi\u015f oysa \u201cIntelligence Assessments in Great Apes\u201d denilebilirdi. Ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n T\u00fcrk\u00e7e terc\u00fcmesinde hem ba\u015fl\u0131ktaki ana kavramlar\u0131 hem de kitab\u0131n i\u00e7eri\u011fini iyi yans\u0131tabilmesi dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

3 Kan\u0131mca bu etkinin asl\u0131nda halen s\u00fcrmekte oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yleyebiliriz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

4 K\u00f6hler\u2019in as\u0131l deneyleri yedi \u015fempanzeyle yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; giri\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde her birinin \u00f6zelliklerini, mazisini, nereden yakalan\u0131p getirildi\u011fini, ne zamand\u0131r bu tesiste ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve benzeri bilgileri aktar\u0131r. Ancak mek\u00e2nda k\u00f6pek, tavuklar ve \u00e7al\u0131\u015fanlar\u0131n k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7ocuklar\u0131 da oldu\u011fundan, pilot k\u0131sm\u0131nda onlarla yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck uygulamalardan da bahseder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

5 K\u00f6hler, tesiste kalan ve birka\u00e7 haftad\u0131r y\u00fcr\u00fcmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f 15 ayl\u0131k bir \u00e7ocu\u011fun da benzer \u015fekilde davrand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 not d\u00fc\u015fer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

6 \u015eempanzeler birbirinin t\u0131pat\u0131p ayn\u0131 davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 g\u00f6stermezler, sorunlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zme s\u00fcreleri de\u011fi\u015fmekte, hedefe varamad\u0131klar\u0131ndaki tepkileri birbirinden farkl\u0131d\u0131r. Her birinin tesise gelene kadar ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 tutsakl\u0131k ge\u00e7mi\u015fi farkl\u0131d\u0131r, K\u00f6hler bu detaylara da dikkat \u00e7eker.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

7 Bu davran\u0131\u015f insan bebeklerinde de \u00e7ok g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

8 \u00d6\u011frencilerin s\u0131navlar\u0131nda da bunu g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Ancak ne yaz\u0131kt\u0131r ki \u00e7ok az hoca hatalar aras\u0131nda bu derecelemeyi yapar ve do\u011frudan sonu\u00e7 yanl\u0131\u015fsa tam puan k\u0131rar. \u00c7oktan se\u00e7meli s\u0131navlarda ise zaten sistem basit bir \u201cya hep ya hi\u00e7\u201dtir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

9 \u00d6rne\u011fin Premack & Woodruff, 1978 tarihli Behavior and Brain Sciences dergisinde \u00e7\u0131kan \u201c\u015eempanzenin bir zihin kuram\u0131 var m\u0131d\u0131r?\u201d makalelerinde Goodall\u2019\u0131n bahsini dahi etmez.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

10 Hayat\u0131 ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme \u00fczerine y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n alandaki \u00f6nemli yeri i\u00e7in bk. Schnall (1999) ve Simon (1999). Duncker kendi kitab\u0131nda, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme meselesine e\u011filen kendisi d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir de Amerikal\u0131 N. R. F. Maier\u2019\u0131n oldu\u011funu belirtir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

11 Karalyn Patterson\u2019\u0131n semantik demans hastalar\u0131nda tespit etti\u011fi ilgin\u00e7 bir durum vard\u0131r, hemen hepsi yapboz ve sudoku gibi oyunlar\u0131n tutkunudurlar. Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 bunu bize kapal\u0131l\u0131k ilkesiyle a\u00e7\u0131klayabilmektedir. Zihinlerindeki kavramlar\u0131n m\u00e2n\u00e2lar\u0131n\u0131 a\u015fama a\u015fama kaybeden ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla anlam d\u00fcnyalar\u0131nda giderek b\u00fcy\u00fcyen bo\u015fluklarla ba\u015fa \u00e7\u0131kmak zorunda kalan bu ki\u015filer en az\u0131ndan yapboz veya sudokular\u0131n\u0131 yaparken kapal\u0131l\u0131k ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 giderebilmektedir diye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnebiliriz. Karalyn Patterson\u2019\u0131n bu hastalar\u0131n \u00f6zelliklerini inan\u0131lmaz bir duyarl\u0131l\u0131k ve derinlikle anlatt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 izlemek i\u00e7in bk. https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=36itc_iY06M<\/a> .<\/p>\n\n\n\n

12 Bu, insana, Eflatun\u2019un Menon diyaloglar\u0131nda Sokrates\u2019in bir k\u00f6leye bir geometri problemini soru cevap yoluyla \u00e7\u00f6zd\u00fcrmesini hat\u0131rlat\u0131r. Sokrates \u00f6nce bir kare \u00e7izer ve ard\u0131ndan k\u00f6leye, iki misli b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckte bir kare i\u00e7in her bir kenar\u0131 ka\u00e7 misli uzatmak gerekti\u011fini sorar. K\u00f6le ilk \u00f6nce 2 misli der, Sokrates k\u00f6lenin cevab\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7izer ve bu \u00e7izim yoluyla ona cevab\u0131n\u0131n yanl\u0131\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr k\u0131lar. Bu y\u00f6ntemi kullana kullana Sokrates, ad\u0131m ad\u0131m, k\u00f6leye herhangi soyut bir geometri bilgisi \u00f6\u011fretmeden onun do\u011fru cevab\u0131 bulmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flar. Ancak burada \u00f6nemli bir fark vard\u0131r. Eflatun\u2019a g\u00f6re bu bilgi do\u011fu\u015ftan herkese verilmi\u015ftir oysa Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131na g\u00f6re bu bilgi zaten do\u011frudan uzamda mevcuttur ve zihinlerimizin sahip oldu\u011fu \u2018do\u011frudan alg\u0131\u2019 becerisiyle ke\u015ffedilebilirdir, e\u011fer \u00f6rne\u011fin, sunulan geometrik sorun do\u011fru \u015fekilde yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131r\u0131l\u0131rsa. Bu iki bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n bir yerde ayn\u0131 yere var\u0131yor olmas\u0131 da kendi ba\u015f\u0131na ilgin\u00e7tir (\u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc asl\u0131nda Sokrates\u2019in de yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 tek \u015fey, k\u00f6leye verdi\u011fi her yanl\u0131\u015f cevab\u0131 g\u00f6rsel olarak i\u015faret edip ad\u0131m ad\u0131m sorunu do\u011fru yap\u0131land\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flamakt\u0131r).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

13 \u0130nsanlar mek\u00e2nlar\u0131ndaki e\u015fyalar\u0131n yerlerini uzun y\u0131llar sonra de\u011fi\u015ftirdi\u011finde s\u0131k\u00e7a sa\u011fa sola \u00e7arpar \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc h\u00e2l\u00e2 sentezlenmi\u015f eski zihin haritas\u0131yla hareket ederler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

14 Y\u00fczen i\u011fne deneylerinde i\u011fnenin suya bat\u0131p batmamas\u0131 farkl\u0131 suya konu\u015f bi\u00e7imleriyle sa\u011flan\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

15 Duncker\u2019\u0131n kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6zc\u00fck \u201cGebundenheit\u201d. Bu s\u00f6zc\u00fck \u201cba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f olmak\u201d gibi bir anlam ta\u015f\u0131r ama bir yandan da belirli bir \u015feye \u201ctutsak\u201d olma anlam\u0131n\u0131 ve buna akraba anlamlar\u0131 daha ta\u015f\u0131r. Bu s\u00f6zc\u00fck de hem \u0130ngilizceye hem T\u00fcrk\u00e7eye terc\u00fcmesi zor bir s\u00f6zc\u00fckt\u00fcr. \u00c7ok tatmin olmam\u0131\u015f olarak, \u201cba\u011flanm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k\u201d s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde karar k\u0131lsam da sanki \u201crab\u0131ta\u201ddan t\u00fcretilmi\u015f \u201cmerbutiyet\u201d s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc Almanca s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011fe \u00e7ok daha yak\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fer, ancak g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde bu s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc anlayabilecek ki\u015fi de pek kalmad\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

16 Hem yer darl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan hem kutu probleminin Duncker\u2019\u0131n deney mant\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 aktarmak i\u00e7in yeterli bir \u00f6rnek oldu\u011fundan di\u011fer d\u00f6rt problem tasvir edilmeyecektir. Ancak problemler aras\u0131 varyans\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr k\u0131lmak ad\u0131na bu di\u011fer problemlerin de \u00f6zet verilerini beraberinde sunduk.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

17 G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u00e7ocuklara sunulan oyuncaklar\u0131n (\u00f6rne\u011fin oyuncak arabalar\u0131n ve sanal oyunlar\u0131n) giderek daha kusursuz, hakiki olana daha yak\u0131n hatta ondan neredeyse ay\u0131rt edilemez olmalar\u0131n\u0131n asl\u0131nda ne kadar talihsiz oldu\u011funu b\u00fcsb\u00fct\u00fcn g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Bu ger\u00e7eklik y\u00f6neliminin, \u00e7ocu\u011fun bir \u015feyi ona \u00e7ok da benzemeyen ba\u015fka bir \u015fey yerine hayal etme yetisini k\u00f6reltebilir mi sorusunu do\u011furuyor. Keza her i\u015flev i\u00e7in \u00f6zel bir aletin geli\u015ftirilip pazarlanmas\u0131n\u0131n da nesneleri farkl\u0131 i\u015flevlerde kullanma yarat\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 asl\u0131nda \u00f6ld\u00fcren bir \u015fey oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnebiliriz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

18 Maryam Mirzakhan\u0131 bu \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fc alan ilk kad\u0131n matematik\u00e7idir ayn\u0131 zamanda.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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