{"id":2075,"date":"2021-10-10T15:00:19","date_gmt":"2021-10-10T15:00:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/?post_type=blog_content&p=2075"},"modified":"2025-09-07T20:01:28","modified_gmt":"2025-09-07T20:01:28","slug":"gestalt-kurami-ve-bilissel-psikoloji-2-esra-mungan","status":"publish","type":"blog_content","link":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/en\/blog_content\/gestalt-kurami-ve-bilissel-psikoloji-2-esra-mungan\/","title":{"rendered":"Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 ve Bili\u015fsel Psikoloji 2 \u2014 Esra Mungan"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

\u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 ve Bili\u015fsel Psikoloji\u201d serisinin t\u00fcm yaz\u0131lar\u0131na buradan<\/a> eri\u015febilirsiniz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dr. Esra Mungan Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i \u00dcniversitesi Psikoloji B\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc\u2019nde \u00f6\u011fretim g\u00f6revlisi. Ba\u015fl\u0131ca \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma alan\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6zel bellek, m\u00fczik belle\u011fi ve m\u00fcziksel bili\u015f olu\u015fturuyor.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6ns\u00f6z<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Bili\u015fsel bilim do\u011fas\u0131 gere\u011fi bir\u00e7ok alan\u0131 bir araya getirmeyi vaad eden, bunu art\u0131k kli\u015fele\u015fmi\u015f olan alt\u0131gen diyagramla ifade eden bir bilim dal\u0131. Ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan bu yana yakla\u015f\u0131k 60 sene ge\u00e7mi\u015f olan bili\u015fsel bilimin bu farkl\u0131 alanlar\u0131 bir araya getirmek ve b\u00f6ylece zihni anlama yolunda b\u00fct\u00fcnc\u00fcl bir perspektif sa\u011flamak, hat\u0131r\u0131 say\u0131l\u0131r bir yol kat etmek gibi vaadlerini yerine getirip getirmedi\u011fi veyahut ne oranda yerine getirdi\u011fi \u015fiddeti giderek artan bir tart\u0131\u015fma konusu. Esra Mungan da \u00f6zellikle kendi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma alanlar\u0131ndan \u2013bellek, m\u00fczik bili\u015fi- hareketle bili\u015fsel bilimde y\u0131llard\u0131r binlerce ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na ra\u011fmen yol kat edilememesine yol a\u00e7an bir yanl\u0131\u015f, hem de temel bir yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu sezenlerden. Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 \u00fczerine yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 okumalarla bu sezgileri form\u00fclize edilmi\u015f bir fikirler b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcne d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fen Esra hoca bunlar\u0131 2020 ve 2021 boyunca Nesne dergisinde yay\u0131nlanm\u0131\u015f \u00fc\u00e7 makalesinde topluyor: \u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131: Bir Nazariyenin Mazisi, Akameti ve Ak\u0131beti,\u201d \u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n Az Bilinen \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131: Bellek,\u201d \u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019n\u0131n Problem \u00c7\u00f6zme \u00dczerine \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ve G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn Ge\u015ftalt\u0131.\u201d Esra Hoca\u2019n\u0131n Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131\u2019na e\u011fildi\u011fi, hakk\u0131nda \u201cbilinen\u201d pek \u00e7ok yanl\u0131\u015f\u0131 d\u00fczeltti\u011fi ve bug\u00fcn\u00fcn bili\u015fsel psikolojisine ve bili\u015fsel bilimine dair neler s\u00f6yledi\u011fini ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu makalelerini biz de alt\u0131 yaz\u0131l\u0131k bir yaz\u0131 dizisi halinde yay\u0131nl\u0131yoruz. B\u00f6ylelikle hem bili\u015fsel bilime dair metodolojik ve felsefi endi\u015feler hakk\u0131ndaki tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n, hem de T\u00fcrkiye bili\u015fsel bilim akademisindeki \u00fcretimin g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne katk\u0131 sa\u011flamay\u0131 umuyoruz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Keyifli okumalar,
CogIST<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu metin, Esra Mungan\u2019\u0131n \u201cGe\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 ve Bili\u015fsel Psikoloji\u201d ad\u0131yla yay\u0131nlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z metninin devam\u0131d\u0131r.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

2- Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131n\u0131n Ana Tespitleri ve Kavramsal \u00d6nermeleri<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

2.1. Kuram\u0131n Ana Tespitleri<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

\u201cGestaltsqualit\u00e4ten\u201d, \u201c\u015eekil-Zemin\u201d ve Gruplama\/Ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rma \u0130lkeleri: von Ehrenfels (1859\u20131932), Rubin (1986\u20131951), Wertheimer<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Wertheimer 1923 makalesine \u015f\u00f6yle ba\u015flar:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n

\u201cPencerede duruyorum ve bir ev, a\u011fa\u00e7lar ve g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6r\u00fcyorum. Ve teorik nedenlerle say\u0131ma ba\u015flayabilir ve diyebilirim ki: burada \u2026 327 ayd\u0131nl\u0131k (ve renk) tonlar\u0131 var. (\u2026) Ve diyelim ki bu garip hesapta ev(in) 120 ve a\u011fa\u00e7lar(\u0131n) 90 ve g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fc(n\u00fcn) 117 (ayd\u0131nl\u0131k tonu vard\u0131r)\u2026Uzun s\u00fcre bakt\u0131ktan sonra (ise)\u2026 bir pencerenin koyu kenar k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fcz bir a\u011fa\u00e7 dal\u0131yla birlikte bir Latin N harfini olu\u015fturdu\u011funu fark etmem ne kadar \u015fa\u015fk\u0131nl\u0131k verici.\u201d (s. 301)13<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

Wertheimer, bu ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7 k\u0131sm\u0131nda asl\u0131nda birka\u00e7 noktaya parmak basar. \u00d6ncelikle bahsini etti\u011fi ayd\u0131nl\u0131k (veya renk) tonlar\u0131n\u0131n say\u0131m denemesi do\u011frudan d\u00f6nemin Wilhem Wundt ile takip\u00e7ileri taraf\u0131ndan uygulanan ara\u015ft\u0131rma y\u00f6ntemine at\u0131ft\u0131r. Wundt\u2019un deneysel \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde ba\u015flayan psikoloji, hen\u00fcz yeni do\u011fmu\u015f bir bilimdir. Kullan\u0131lan y\u00f6ntem ise o d\u00f6nemin ruhuna ve ampirisistik14 felsefesine uygundu: Ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan kontroll\u00fc olarak manip\u00fcle edilebilen d\u0131\u015f uyaranlar, bu d\u0131\u015f uyaranlar\u0131n somutlu\u011fu ve kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n, e\u011fitimini ald\u0131klar\u0131 i\u00e7ebak\u0131\u015f (\u2018introspection\u2019) y\u00f6ntemiyle, deneyimlenen duyu \u201cadetlerinin\u201d aktar\u0131m\u0131. Y\u00f6ntemsel sorunlar bir kenara, buradaki as\u0131l sorun, ki Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n giri\u015f paragraf\u0131 tam da oraya i\u015faret eder, ara\u015ft\u0131rma sorusunun m\u00e2n\u00e2s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Wundt, 1879\u2019da Leipzig\u2019de kurdu\u011fu laboratuarda insan bili\u015fini duyular ve o duyular\u0131n da en alt bile\u015fenleri \u00fczerinden anlamay\u0131 hedefliyordu. Wundt\u2019u takip eden d\u00f6nemlerde de\u011fi\u015fen tek \u015fey, duyu deneyiminin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda da deneyimlerin benzer bir yakla\u015f\u0131mla anla\u015f\u0131labilece\u011fi, \u201cde\u015fifre\u201d edilebilece\u011fi idi (\u00f6rne\u011fin, Ebbinghaus bu y\u00f6ntemle bellek olu\u015fumu ve yitimini, Georg Elias M\u00fcller yine bellekte ket vurma gibi mekanizmalar\u0131 ve Oswald K\u00fclpe d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme gibi daha karma\u015f\u0131k deneyimleri yine bu yolla inceler). T\u00fcm bu u\u011fra\u015flarda, ister en basit duyu inceleniyor olsun, ister daha karma\u015f\u0131k deneyimler, ana \u00f6n kabul, herhangi bir deneyimin bar\u0131nd\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u2018duyu par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n\u2019, birbirinden izole edilerek tek tek \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclmeleriyle toplama dair, yani ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan deneyime dair bir \u015feyin kavranabilece\u011fi, hatta ikisinin e\u015fle\u015fece\u011fi anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 idi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yukar\u0131daki paragraf\u0131nda Wertheimer tam da bunun anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair bir \u00f6rnek kurar. Ard\u0131ndan m\u00fczikten bir \u00f6rnek sunar:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n

\u201cVeya bir melodiyi (17 ses!) e\u015fli\u011fi15 ile (32 ses!) dinlerim. Duydu\u011fum, basit\u00e7e \u201c49\u201d ve hele ki \u2026 keyfe g\u00f6re 20 art\u0131 29 de\u011fil, bir melodi ve e\u015fli\u011fidir. (s. 103)<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

Wertheimer bu \u00f6rneklerle en \u00e7ok da \u00e7evremizi deneyimlerken kendili\u011finden bize \u201cn\u00fcfuz eden\u201d gruplama ve ayr\u0131\u015fma olgusuna dikkat \u00e7eker ve o zamana kadar y\u00fcr\u00fcyen psikoloji ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131nda bunun varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcyle \u0131skaland\u0131\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret eder. \u00d6rne\u011fin, pencereden d\u0131\u015far\u0131ya bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda en \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 olan \u015fey \u201ca\u011fa\u00e7\u201d g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn alt par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131 de\u011fil, bir a\u011fac\u0131n bir anda bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak t\u00fcm di\u011fer nesnelerden (di\u011fer a\u011fa\u00e7lardan, pencereden, g\u00f6ky\u00fcz\u00fcnden) ayr\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f olarak deneyimlenmesi. Ve keza pencerenin ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde deneyimlenmesi ve hatta koyu kenarlar\u0131n\u0131n bir k\u0131sm\u0131yla bir a\u011fa\u00e7 dal\u0131 uygun bir konfig\u00fcrasyona girerse bir \u201cN\u201d harfinin belirmesi. Veya, \u00f6rne\u011fin, \u00e7ok sesli m\u00fczikte ana melodiyi bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak duymam\u0131z ve ona e\u015f zamanl\u0131 olarak e\u015flik eden partisyondan ayr\u0131\u015fmas\u0131. Makalenin sonraki k\u0131sm\u0131, bu \u201cani\u201d, \u201ckendili\u011finden\u201d olan gruplama ile ayr\u0131\u015fma dinami\u011fini yaratan uzam-zamansal konfig\u00fcrasyonlar\u0131 tespit etmeyi ve bunlar\u0131n temel ilkelerini 16 belirlemeyi hedefler. O ilkelere ge\u00e7meden \u00f6nce bu gruplama\/ayr\u0131\u015fma kavram\u0131na dair Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n da ilham ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 iki kaynaktan bahsetmek yerinde olacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1890\u2019da felsefeci Christian von Ehrenfels \u201cGestaltsqualit\u00e4ten\u201d diye bir tabir ortaya atar, hatta bu s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc t\u0131rnak i\u00e7inde ba\u015fl\u0131kta kullan\u0131r. Von Ehrenfels, Ernst Mach\u2019\u0131n \u201cuzam ve ses \u015fekilleri\u201d17 ifadesinden yola \u00e7\u0131karak bu \u015fekillerin b\u00fct\u00fcnsel \u00f6zelliklerini yitirmeden de\u011fi\u015ftirilebilece\u011fine dikkat \u00e7eker. \u00d6rnekler yine bolca m\u00fcziktendir, en kolay anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r olan\u0131 ise bir melodinin daha tiz veya daha pes bir perdeden \u00e7al\u0131n\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n, melodinin b\u00fct\u00fcnsel \u00f6zelli\u011fini, yani \u015fekil kalitesini de\u011fi\u015ftirmedi\u011fi \u00f6rne\u011fidir. Ba\u015fka bir deyi\u015fle, daha \u00f6nce bir melodiyi hep La sesinden ba\u015flayarak \u00e7al\u0131n\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 duymu\u015f biri, melodinin bu sefer yar\u0131m nota daha pesten veya tizden \u00e7al\u0131n\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 duyarsa hi\u00e7bir m\u00fczik bilgisi yoksa da o melodiyi tan\u0131r, bir \u00f6ncekiyle ayn\u0131 melodi oldu\u011funu anlar. Oysa bu iki melodi aras\u0131nda tek bir ortak nota yoktur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Di\u011fer \u00f6nemli yay\u0131n ise Danimarkal\u0131 Edgar Rubin\u2019in 1915 tarihli \u201cg\u00f6rsel alg\u0131lanan \u015fekiller\u201d \u00fczerine olan kitab\u0131d\u0131r. Rubin bu kitab\u0131nda von Ehrenfels\u2019in \u201cGestaltsqualit\u00e4ten\u201d kavram\u0131na referans verip do\u011frudan \u201c\u015fekil-zemin\u201d meselesini ortaya atar. Kitab\u0131nda bahsini etti\u011fi deneysel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar \u00f6rne\u011fin Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n 1912 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131yla k\u0131yasland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda kurgu ve analizleri bak\u0131m\u0131ndan basit ka\u00e7sa da Rubin\u2019in geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi g\u00f6rsel uyaranlardaki g\u00f6zlem g\u00fcc\u00fc onun tarih sayfalar\u0131nda bir yer edinmesini sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin alttaki \u015fekle (\u015eekil 2) bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda genellikle insanlar\u0131n siyah bir zemin \u00fczerine beyaz \u015fekiller g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc belirtir. Bunu tersine \u00e7evirmek i\u00e7in, yani siyah alan\u0131 bir \u015fekil olarak, beyaz lekeleri ise bir zemin olarak g\u00f6rmenin zorlu\u011fundan bahseder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 2 (Rubin, 1915)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u015eekil 2\u2019de bir\u00e7ok \u015fekil ortak bir zemin \u00fczerindeyken \u015eekil 3\u2019teki uyaran o a\u00e7\u0131dan daha farkl\u0131d\u0131r. Bu sefer ki\u015filer \u015fekil-zemin konusunda git-gel ya\u015farlar. Bu uyaranda \u00f6nemli olan, \u00f6rne\u011fin siyah b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u015fekil olarak alg\u0131land\u0131\u011f\u0131nda sivri bir el veya pen\u00e7e benzeri \u015fekil, buna kar\u015f\u0131n beyaz b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u015fekil olarak alg\u0131land\u0131\u011f\u0131nda yuvarlak hatl\u0131, belki iki dudak ve bir dili \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran, yani di\u011ferinin sivrili\u011fine tezat yuvarlakl\u0131k alg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6n planda oldu\u011fu bir \u015feklin g\u00f6r\u00fcnmesidir. Bu a\u00e7\u0131dan \u015eekil 3\u2019teki uyaran Rubin\u2019in kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6rne\u011fin \u015eekil 4\u2019teki uyarandan ayr\u0131\u015f\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 3. (Rubin, 1915)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"\"\/
\u015eekil 4. (Rubin, 1915)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Y\u00fczlerce psikoloji (ve herhalde tasar\u0131m vb.) kitab\u0131na giren ama genelde bunun 1915\u2019te yine Rubin taraf\u0131ndan geli\u015ftirildi\u011fi bilinmeyen me\u015fhur kupa uyaran\u0131nda (\u015eekil 5) ise kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n \u201cbir kupa i\u015fte\u201d dediklerini ve ancak dikkatleri birbirine bakan y\u00fcze y\u00f6nlendirildi\u011finde onu bir \u015fa\u015fk\u0131nl\u0131k nidas\u0131yla fark ettiklerine i\u015faret eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 5. (Rubin, 1915)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt\u2019\u0131n Gruplama \u0130lkeleri<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Wertheimer, yukar\u0131da bahsini etti\u011fimiz 1923 makalesinde birka\u00e7 \u00f6rnek sunduktan sonra bu gruplama\/ayr\u0131\u015fma dinami\u011fini yak\u0131n mercek alt\u0131na al\u0131r ve ad\u0131m ad\u0131m birka\u00e7 ilke sunar. Bunu yaparken bir\u00e7ok g\u00f6rsel \u00f6rnek verir. Wertheimer soruyu \u015fu \u015fekilde form\u00fcle eder: E\u015fzamanl\u0131 olarak a b c d e \u015feklinde be\u015f uyar\u0131lma olursa bunlar\u0131n a b c \/ d e olarak veya a b \/ c d e olarak gruplanmas\u0131 hangi ilkelere g\u00f6re olur? E\u011fer bir \u015fekilde gruplan\u0131yorsa o gruplama hali ne kadar kararl\u0131d\u0131r, ne kadar kimi m\u00fcdahalelerle de\u011fi\u015ftirilebilir veya de\u011fi\u015ftirilemezdir? Bu temel sorular\u0131 ortaya att\u0131ktan sonra ilk tespit etti\u011fi ilke olarak yak\u0131nl\u0131k ilkesini sunar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yak\u0131nl\u0131k \u0130lkesi. <\/strong>Wertheimer makalesinde g\u00f6rsel olarak sabit yak\u0131nl\u0131k ve uzakl\u0131klarda olan bir noktalar silsilesi sunar (\u015eekil 6). B\u00f6yle bir uyaran verildi\u011finde ki\u015fi bunu kendili\u011finden a b \/ c d \/ e f \/.. olarak g\u00f6recektir ve u\u011fra\u015fsa bile a \/ b c \/ d e \/ .. \u015feklinde g\u00f6remeyecektir veya o g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc bir an i\u00e7in belirip yok olacakt\u0131r. Bu noktada Wertheimer uyaran\u0131n \u00e7ok kontroll\u00fc sunulmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini, psikoloji deneylerinde \u00e7ok\u00e7a bu tarz uyaranlar\u0131n dikkatsizce alt alta konulup bir anda kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131ya sunulabildi\u011fini veya uyaran\u0131 projekte eden cihaz\u0131n ekranda bir kontur olu\u015fturabilece\u011fini, bunlar\u0131n da sunulan uyaran\u0131 do\u011frudan de\u011fi\u015ftirece\u011fini, t\u00fcm bu g\u00f6rmezden gelinen veya g\u00f6zden ka\u00e7an fakt\u00f6rlerin alg\u0131 deneyimini asl\u0131nda son derece etkileyebilece\u011fini vurgular. Wertheimer bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra uyaranlar\u0131n geli\u015f s\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131n da \u00f6nemli bir etkisi olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, bunun da dikkatle not edilip incelenmesi gerekti\u011fini belirtir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 6. (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Bir sonraki \u015fekilde ise noktalar bu sefer \u00e7apraz dizildi\u011finde (\u015eekil 7a) bu noktalar\u0131n a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dan yukar\u0131 a b \/ c d \/ vs. veya yukar\u0131dan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 b a \/ d c \/ vs. olarak alg\u0131lanmas\u0131n\u0131n tespitiyle yetinmez18, kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lardan bu sefer de soldan sa\u011fa uzun \u00e7apraz ili\u015fkisiyle b c \/ d e \/ vs. (\u015eekil 7b\u2019de kastedilen gruplamay\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr k\u0131lmak i\u00e7in silik k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 bir \u00e7izgi kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r) g\u00f6rebilip g\u00f6remediklerini (yani farkl\u0131 bir gruplama yap\u0131p yapamad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131) inceler. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n bu tarz bir gruplamay\u0131 ya hi\u00e7 yapamad\u0131klar\u0131 ya da ancak \u00e7ok anl\u0131k olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcp hemen sonra g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcn\u00fcn tekrar di\u011fer gruplamaya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc not eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 7a (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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\u015eekil 7b (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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\u015eekil 8a (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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\u015eekil 8b (Wertheimer, 1923; k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 halka yazar taraf\u0131ndan eklenmi\u015ftir)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Wertheimer deneylerde kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 uyaran b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fcn ka\u00e7 noktadan olu\u015ftu\u011funun etki g\u00fcc\u00fcne de de\u011finir. Nokta say\u0131s\u0131 azald\u0131\u011f\u0131nda kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n \u201cayk\u0131r\u0131\u201d gruplamay\u0131 bir nebze daha rahat yapabildi\u011fine, nokta say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n artmas\u0131yla ise bunun giderek zorla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131na dikkat \u00e7eker. \u00d6te yandan nokta say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n artmas\u0131n\u0131n normal gruplamay\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131rmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, nokta say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n normal gruplama deneyimi \u00fczerinde bir etkisi olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 not eder. Son olarak da burada g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi g\u00f6rsel uyaran i\u015fitsel ritim uyaran\u0131 olarak sunuldu\u011funda gruplamalar\u0131n benzer \u015fekilde olu\u015ftu\u011funu, \u00e7apraz versiyonunun da ses perdesi de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi ile (ses d\u00fczeyi ayn\u0131 kalarak) \u201c[pes tiz] [pes tiz] [pes tiz]\u201d \u015feklinde sa\u011flanabildi\u011fini ve yine benzer bir gruplamaya yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Makalesinin 308 nolu sayfas\u0131nda \u015fu ana kadar tespit ettiklerini tart\u0131\u015f\u0131r ve okurla sohbet edermi\u015f\u00e7esine \u201cama t\u00fcm bunlar \u00e7ok bariz zaten, tabi\u00ee ki yak\u0131n olanlar\u0131 bir arada tutmak daha kolayd\u0131r\u201d diyen hayali okuyucuya bunun hi\u00e7 de \u00f6yle olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, bu tarz \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarda uzamsal veya zamansal mesafelerin oranlar\u0131n\u0131n kritik bir rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve bunun a\u00e7\u0131klanmaya muhta\u00e7 bir durum te\u015fkil etti\u011fini hat\u0131rlat\u0131r, yine y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ana ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z de\u011fi\u015fkeni mesafeler aras\u0131 oran olan bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131na ve onun bulgular\u0131na de\u011finir. Buna ili\u015fkin Rock ve Palmer\u2019\u0131n 1990 makalelerinde de\u011findi\u011fi \u00f6nemli bir k\u0131sma i\u015faret etmek isteriz. \u00d6rne\u011fin g\u00f6z\u00fcn a\u011f tabakas\u0131nda d\u0131\u015fsal bir uyaran\u0131n \u015fekil-zemin gruplamas\u0131na dair tek bir veri bulunmamaktad\u0131r. Tersine bir g\u00f6rsel d\u00fczendeki A \u015fekliyle B \u015feklinin her bir alt par\u00e7as\u0131 ve keza \u201czemin\u201d say\u0131labilecek \u00f6gelerin g\u00f6z\u00fcn a\u011f tabakas\u0131nda yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 uyarmalar birbirinden ay\u0131rt edilemez haldedirler \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc i\u015fleni\u015fleri yaln\u0131zca \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n dalga boylar\u0131 ve g\u00fcc\u00fc temelindedir. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, d\u0131\u015f d\u00fcnyada \u201cgruplu\u201d gibi olan \u015feyler a\u011f tabakada benzer bir grupluluk ile kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k bulmaz. Benzer \u015fekilde ritmik i\u015fitsel uyaranlar i\u00e7in de bu tarz bir durum s\u00f6z konusu \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc h\u00e2len zaman\u0131n ve hele ki zamansal s\u00fcrelerin (uzamsal \u00f6zelliklerin alg\u0131s\u0131nda da kritik olan) birbiriyle orant\u0131sal ili\u015fkilerinin beyinde nas\u0131l kodland\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmiyor. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, zaman\u0131n beyindeki tezah\u00fcr\u00fc h\u00e2l\u00e2 bir\u00e7ok taraf\u0131yla b\u00fcy\u00fck bir bilinmezdir (bk. Buhusi, 2020; \u00dcnal ve Ayhan, 2020). Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Wertheimer\u2019in ta 1923\u2019te sordu\u011fu bu kritik sorular h\u00e2l\u00e2 cevaplanmaya muhta\u00e7 sorulard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ayn\u0131l\u0131k19 \u0130lkesi. <\/strong>Wertheimer, ayn\u0131 y\u00f6ntem ve sorularla bu sefer ayn\u0131l\u0131k ilkesini tespit edip inceler. Yine odakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 husus, kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n ayn\u0131lar\u0131 de\u011fil ayn\u0131 olmayanlar\u0131 gruplay\u0131p gruplayamad\u0131\u011f\u0131na ve ayn\u0131lar\u0131n gruplanmas\u0131n\u0131n bask\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve kararl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile di\u011fer gruplaman\u0131n zorlu\u011funa ve e\u011fer ki ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131rsa o alg\u0131n\u0131n anl\u0131k ve karars\u0131z olu\u015funa parmak basar (bk. \u015eekil 9a-d). Yak\u0131nl\u0131k prensibinde oldu\u011fu gibi bu prensibi de yine i\u015fitsel uyaranlar baz\u0131nda da inceler ve sonu\u00e7lar yine \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 derecede benzerdir (\u015eekil 10a-d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 9a-d (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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\u015eekil 10a-b (Wertheimer, 1923; \u201c!\u201d vurgulu ritmik vuru\u015f, \u201c.\u201d vurgusuz ritmik vuru\u015f; a\u2019da ikili gruplama (..) (! !), b\u2019de ise \u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc gruplama olmakta (\u2026) (! ! !) )<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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\u015eekil 10 c-d (Wertheimer, 1923 \u00f6rnekleri baz al\u0131narak notaland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; yar\u0131m notal\u0131 ge\u00e7i\u015fler gruplan\u0131rken, k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 okun i\u015faret etti\u011fi yar\u0131m notadan b\u00fcy\u00fck olan aral\u0131kl\u0131 ge\u00e7i\u015fler ise ayr\u0131\u015f\u0131r)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Yak\u0131nl\u0131k ve Ayn\u0131l\u0131k \u0130lkesi Ayn\u0131 Anda.<\/strong> Wertheimer bir sonraki b\u00f6l\u00fcmde iki temel ilkenin e\u015f zamanl\u0131 olarak birbiriyle nas\u0131l ili\u015fkilendi\u011fine odaklan\u0131r. \u0130ki ilke a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bir durumda ortak (\u015eekil 11a, 12a), di\u011fer durumda ise \u00e7at\u0131\u015f\u0131k bir gruplama (\u015eekil 11b, 12b) durumu yarat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ayn\u0131l\u0131k ilkesinin daha bask\u0131n oldu\u011funu tespit eder. Benzer bir bulguyu g\u00f6rsel yerine i\u015fitsel uyaranlar kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bulur (\u015eekil 13a, 14a ve 13b, 14b).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Ortak Kader \u0130lkesi. <\/strong>Wertheimer 1912 makalesindeki gibi bu makalede de hareket halindeki uyaranlarda hareketten do\u011fan gruplamaya dair k\u0131sa bir tespitte bulunur. Birlikte e\u015f zamanl\u0131 hareket eden noktalar\u0131n gruplanaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve \u015fekil olu\u015fturaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir (bunun i\u00e7in bk. http:\/\/artnet.nmu.edu\/foundations\/doku.php?id=common_fate),<\/a> onun d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda ayr\u0131nt\u0131ya girmez. Bu etkinin i\u015fitsel alanda, hele ki m\u00fczikteki varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 iyi bilinir ve g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde, t\u00fcm di\u011fer Ge\u015ftalt gruplama ilkeleriyle birlikte belki de en iyi \u015fekilde Albert S. Bregman (1994) taraf\u0131ndan incelenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130yi Devaml\u0131l\u0131k \u0130lkesi. <\/strong>\u015eekil 16\u2019da g\u00f6sterilen be\u015f farkl\u0131 \u00e7izimde yine g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor ki anl\u0131k ve kendili\u011finden olan gruplama sol s\u00fct\u00fbndakilerde A-C (ve B-D) \u015feklinde, sa\u011f s\u00fct\u00fbndakilerde ise A-D ve B-C \u015feklindedir. Bu b\u00f6l\u00fcmde, deneylerinde a\u00e7\u0131y\u0131 manip\u00fcle etti\u011finden bahseder ve a\u00e7\u0131n\u0131n tek ba\u015f\u0131na bask\u0131n gruplamay\u0131 belirlemedi\u011fini vurgular. \u00d6rne\u011fin sol \u00fcstteki \u015fekildeki \u00e7emberi daraltt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ya da \u00e7ember \u015feklini bozdu\u011funda bile gruplaman\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fmedi\u011fini belirtir. Keza sol \u00fcstte \u201cAbb. 8\u201d (veya 9) diye ge\u00e7en \u015fekilde, B \u00e7izgisini te\u011fet olarak yerle\u015ftirdi\u011finde de sonucun de\u011fi\u015fmedi\u011fini tespit eder. Yer darl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan uygulanan t\u00fcm manip\u00fclasyonlar\u0131 saymam\u0131z m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fil ancak birka\u00e7\u0131ndan bahsederek Wertheimer\u2019in bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda meseleyi basit bir g\u00f6rsel \u00f6rnekleme \u015feklinde ele almad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, tersine aynen 1912 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131ndaki gibi \u00e7ok titiz ve sistematik olarak farkl\u0131 uyaran ve uygulama \u015fekilleri kullan\u0131p gruplamalar\u0131n ne kadar etkilendi\u011fini anlamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermek istedik. Genel olarak, \u015feklin b\u00fct\u00fcnselli\u011fi i\u00e7inde daha b\u00fcy\u00fck olan b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn bir \u201ciyi devam\u201d ak\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 temsil etti\u011fini belirtir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 16. (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u201cKapal\u0131l\u0131k\u201d \u0130lkesi.<\/strong> D\u00fczenli veya d\u00fczensiz (\u015eekil 17) bir bo\u015flu\u011fu sarmalayan bir kont\u00fcr o b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn \u015fekil olarak alg\u0131lanmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flar. Bu b\u00f6l\u00fcmde Wertheimer yine bir\u00e7ok \u015feyi inceler. \u00d6rne\u011fin bazen t\u00fcm \u015fekiller kapal\u0131 olup i\u00e7 i\u00e7e oldu\u011funda tekil bir \u015fekil olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclebildi\u011fine, \u00f6te yandan kapal\u0131 olup kesi\u015fmedi\u011finde veya k\u0131smi kesi\u015fti\u011finde iki \u015fekil olarak alg\u0131land\u0131\u011f\u0131na dikkat \u00e7eker ve bu olgunun da incelenmeye de\u011fer oldu\u011funu belirtir (\u015eekil 18). Ayr\u0131ca buradan da g\u00f6r\u00fclebilece\u011fi gibi, Wertheimer bu ilkede \u00e7izgiler aras\u0131nda b\u0131rak\u0131lan bo\u015fluklar\u0131 tamamlama gibi bir \u015feyden bahsetmez. O \u00f6rne\u011fi Koffka 1936 kitab\u0131nda K\u00f6hler\u2019in bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131na atfen verir (\u015eekil 19).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u0130yi Devaml\u0131l\u0131k ve Kapal\u0131l\u0131k \u0130lkesi Ayn\u0131 Anda.<\/strong> Bu iki ilke e\u015fzamanl\u0131 ve \u00e7at\u0131\u015fk\u0131 i\u00e7inde sunuldu\u011funda bu kez iyi devaml\u0131l\u0131k ilkesinin a\u011f\u0131r bast\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir (\u015eekil 20). Asl\u0131nda bu iki ilkenin birbiriyle etkile\u015fimi muhtemelen \u00e7ok daha karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00f6rne\u011fin Koffka\u2019n\u0131n yine K\u00f6hler\u2019\u0131n bir eserine atfen \u00f6rne\u011fini verdi\u011fi bir ba\u015fka uyaranda tam tersini g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz (\u015eekil 21). Elbette burada birer birle\u015ftiren \u00e7izgiyle iki kapal\u0131 alan\u0131n birbiriyle ili\u015fkileni\u015f bi\u00e7imi de \u015eekil 20\u2019dekinden farkl\u0131d\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u00fcst \u00fcste gelmemi\u015f, yan yana d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 20. (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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\u015eekil 21. (Koffka, 1936)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Pr\u00e4gnanz (Tekillik\/Belirginlik) Dereceleri.<\/strong> 1923 makalesinde Wertheimer \u201cpr\u00e4gnant\u201d k\u00f6k\u00fcn\u00fc i\u00e7eren s\u00f6zc\u00fckleri bir\u00e7ok yerde kullan\u0131r ancak bu kavram makalesinin be\u015finci b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn bir nevi oda\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Bu b\u00f6l\u00fcmde \u00f6rne\u011fin bir ki\u015fiye \u00e7ok k\u0131sa, takistoskopik bir g\u00f6sterimle kusurlu bir \u00e7ember g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde, e\u011fer sapma \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck de\u011filse, ki\u015finin bunu farketmedi\u011finden, \u00f6te yandan normal s\u00fcreli bir g\u00f6sterimde en hafif sapman\u0131n bile hemen \u201chissedildi\u011fi\u201d ve sonra tespit edilebildi\u011finden bahseder. Makalenin di\u011fer k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131nda da keza, daha \u201cpr\u00e4gnant\u201d diye tabir etti\u011fi \u015feyler hep daha kararl\u0131, daha \u201ciyi\u201d formlard\u0131r. Burada \u00f6nemli olan \u201cbasitlik\u201dten \u00e7ok \u201ckararl\u0131l\u0131k\u201dt\u0131r (bk. Luccio, 2019). Yine Luccio\u2019ya (1998) g\u00f6re \u201cPr\u00e4gnanz\u201d ayr\u0131 bir ilke de\u011fildir ve iki anlamda kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bir anlam\u0131 \u201cAusgezeichnetheit\u201d (\u201ctekillik\u201d), ki bu \u015fekil-zemin ili\u015fkisinde \u015fekillere dair bir tan\u0131mlamad\u0131r ve \u015fekiller aras\u0131nda farkl\u0131 belirginlik derecelerine i\u015faret eder. Bir di\u011fer anlam\u0131 ise bir uyarana bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda (hele ki karma\u015f\u0131ksa veya yo\u011fun kamuflaj i\u00e7eriyorsa) o tekil \u015feklin veya \u015fekillerin belirleme e\u011filimi, s\u00fcrecidir. Wertheimer ve di\u011fer Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00f6nemli olan, bu \u015fekil g\u00f6rme dinamizminin keyfi de\u011fil belirli bir \u201ckanunilik\u201d i\u00e7inde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u011fidir. Hatta K\u00f6hler \u201cPr\u00e4gnanz\u201d tabirini kullanmay\u0131 \u00e7ok tercih etmez ve onun yerine bu dinamizme i\u015faret ederken s\u0131k\u00e7a fizikteki \u201ckendinden d\u00fczenlenen\u201d20 tabirini kullan\u0131r. Koffka ise Pr\u00e4gnanz\u2019\u0131 di\u011fer ilkelerle birlikte, yani onlar gibi bir ilke olarak ele al\u0131r. Koffka\u2019n\u0131n Pr\u00e4gnanz olu\u015fumuna dair \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bir \u00f6rne\u011fi \u015eekil 22a-c\u2019de g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir. Kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131ya ilk \u00f6nce yaln\u0131zca a \u015fekli sunuldu\u011funda ki\u015fi bunu a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak iki boyutlu bir \u015fekil olarak alg\u0131lar, yani kararl\u0131 olan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc iki boyutlu olan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcd\u00fcr. Ancak ki\u015fiye b ve hele ki c \u015fekli sunuldu\u011fu an a\u2019daki \u015fekle tekrar bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda istemsiz olarak birden \u015feklin \u00fc\u00e7 boyutlu hali belirir. Bu ayr\u0131ca, Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n da \u00f6nemle \u00fcst\u00fcnde durdu\u011fu, uyaranlar\u0131n geli\u015f \u015fekli ve birbirini etkileyi\u015f bi\u00e7imine dair \u00f6nemli bir bulgudur. \u015eekiller a\u2019dan c\u2019ye g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde hem a hem b, \u00f6te yandan c\u2019den a\u2019ya g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde yine hem a hem b farkl\u0131 bir \u201cGe\u015ftalt\u201d olarak alg\u0131lanacakt\u0131r. \u0130lkinde \u00f6zellikle a ve b\u00fcy\u00fck olas\u0131l\u0131kla b\u2019nin alg\u0131lan\u0131\u015f\u0131 iki boyutlu, di\u011ferinde ise b ve hatta a\u2019n\u0131n alg\u0131lan\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00fc\u00e7 boyutlu olarak de\u011fi\u015fecektir. Ard\u0131ndan okuyucu ara ara a \u015fekline bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda art\u0131k kararl\u0131 olmayan bir iki- bir \u00fc\u00e7boyutlu g\u00f6r\u00fcnen, \u201cgit-gel\u201dli bir form g\u00f6recektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 22a-c (Koffka, 1936)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Deneyimin, \u00d6\u011frenilmi\u015fliklerin \u00d6nemi.<\/strong> Bu b\u00f6l\u00fcmde Wertheimer yine ilgin\u00e7 \u00f6rnekler sunar. \u015eekil 23a\u2019ya i\u015faret eder ve ampirisistik kurama g\u00f6re okumu\u015f bir insan\u0131n do\u011frudan ve ilk etapta, ampirisistik kuram\u0131n \u201cs\u0131kl\u0131k\u201d \u00f6nermesi do\u011frultusunda o \u015feklin i\u00e7inde tepede bir W, altta ise bir M harfi g\u00f6rmelidir (\u015eekil 23b)21. Oysa kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n deneyimi sol ve sa\u011f kanatta d\u0131\u015fa bakan geni\u015f birer parantez ve ortada s\u00fcsl\u00fc bir karo \u015feklindedir (\u015eekil 23c). Wertheimer, kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bu ayr\u0131k par\u00e7alar\u0131n, kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olma s\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n muhtemelen harflerden \u00e7ok daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck oldu\u011funu, onun i\u00e7in bu yayg\u0131n ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rma (\u2018segmente etme\u2019) e\u011filiminin ampirik kurama g\u00f6re a\u00e7\u0131klanmaya muhta\u00e7 kald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir. Wertheimer\u2019a g\u00f6re burada da, aynen di\u011fer gruplamalarda oldu\u011fu gibi, esas olan\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fma s\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan \u00e7ok uyaran\u0131n i\u00e7indeki olas\u0131 alt \u015fekillerin alg\u0131sal \u201ckararl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201dd\u0131r. Bir sonraki b\u00f6l\u00fcmde burada kastedilenin tam ne oldu\u011funu a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015faca\u011f\u0131z \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n bu \u00f6nemli kavramsal \u00f6nermesi de \u00e7ok\u00e7a yanl\u0131\u015f veya eksik anla\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Buna kar\u015f\u0131n Wertheimer deneyim etkisini hafifsemez, nitekim parantez ve karo \u015fekilleri de deneyimle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. \u0130tiraz\u0131, her \u015feyin yaln\u0131zca ampirisistik ard\u0131ll\u0131k, yani \u201cpe\u015f pe\u015fe, s\u0131kl\u0131kla, yan yana gele gele asosiye olmas\u0131\u201d mekanizmas\u0131yla a\u00e7\u0131klanmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131na ve bu basit, tekil mekanizman\u0131n her \u015feyi a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in t\u00fcm\u00fcyle yeterli oldu\u011fu iddias\u0131na y\u00f6neliktir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 23a-c (Wertheimer, 1923; b ve c \u015fekli s\u0131ras\u0131yla ampirisistik bak\u0131\u015fa g\u00f6re beklenen b\u00f6l\u00fctlemeyi ve ger\u00e7ekte deneyimlenen b\u00f6l\u00fctlenmeyi belirginle\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in yazar taraf\u0131ndan olu\u015fturulmu\u015ftur)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6te yandan Wertheimer, \u00f6rne\u011fin \u015eekil 24\u2019deki uyarana i\u015faret eder ve bunun Latin harfleriyle k\u00fclt\u00fcrlenmi\u015f ki\u015filer taraf\u0131ndan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ihtimalle biraz de\u011fi\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir \u201cV\u201d harfi olarak, Yunan harfleriyle k\u00fclt\u00fcrlenmi\u015f ki\u015filerce ise genel \u015fekil itibariyle biraz s\u00fcslenmi\u015f bir \u201cgamma\u201d (\u03b3), \u015feklin geneline de\u011fil bir par\u00e7ac\u0131\u011f\u0131na odaklananlar\u0131n22 ise alttan sa\u011fa do\u011fru gelen k\u0131sm\u0131 ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131p deforme bir \u201csigma\u201d (\u03c3) olarak g\u00f6rebilece\u011finden bahseder. Buradan da g\u00f6r\u00fclebilece\u011fi gibi Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131 daha ortaya \u00e7\u0131karken bile k\u00fclt\u00fcrlenme denen bir etki oldu\u011funu teslim eder. Hatta Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n Carl Stumpf\u2019un yan\u0131nda \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 1909 tarihli \u201cMusik der Wedda\u201d ve hele ki 1912 tarihli \u00e7ok ufuk a\u00e7\u0131c\u0131 \u201c\u00dcber das Denken der Naturv\u00f6lker, Zahlen und Zahlgebilde (Do\u011fal Halklar\u0131n23 D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fc hakk\u0131nda, Say\u0131lar ve Say\u0131 Yap\u0131lar\u0131)\u201d makaleleri tam da farkl\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrlerin ayn\u0131 uyaranlar\u0131 Bat\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcnden gelen ki\u015filerden nas\u0131l farkl\u0131 \u015fekilde ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve alg\u0131lad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 inceler. Bunu yaparken de, iki farkl\u0131 bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n da kendi i\u00e7inde bir mant\u0131\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011funa dikkat \u00e7eker, \u00f6rne\u011fin kimi g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc k\u00fcmelerinin ba\u015fka bir k\u00fclt\u00fcrde t\u00fcm\u00fcyle farkl\u0131 \u015fekillerde gruplanabildi\u011fine dikkat \u00e7eker.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 24. (Wertheimer, 1923)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Wertheimer 1923 Makalesinden Genel \u00c7\u0131karsamalar\u0131. <\/strong>Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n makale boyunca \u00f6zellikle iki \u015feyi s\u00fcrekli vurgulad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. Bunlardan biri, b\u00fct\u00fcn bu farkl\u0131 g\u00f6rsel ve i\u015fitsel deneylerde tespit ettiklerinin kolayca ampirist bir \u201c\u00f6\u011frenilmi\u015flikler\u201d manzumesiyle a\u00e7\u0131klanamayaca\u011f\u0131 vurgusudur. Bir\u00e7ok g\u00f6rsel ve i\u015fitsel uyaranl\u0131 deneyinde g\u00f6zlemledi\u011fi bask\u0131n gruplamalar ve ayr\u0131\u015fma dinamiklerinin, uyarandaki unsurlar\u0131n fenomenal alg\u0131da birbiriyle etkile\u015fmesi sonucu belirli bir kararl\u0131l\u0131k noktas\u0131na vard\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, alg\u0131n\u0131n o kararl\u0131l\u0131k noktas\u0131na var\u0131\u015f sonucu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir. Bu \u2018uyaran dinamizminin\u2019, ampirist bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131nda t\u00fcm\u00fcyle g\u00f6zard\u0131 edildi\u011fi ve a\u00e7\u0131klanmaya muhta\u00e7 kald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, onlar\u0131n s\u0131kl\u0131k ve ard\u0131ll\u0131k\/pe\u015f pe\u015felilik prensiplerinin buradaki dinamizmi a\u00e7\u0131klamakta yetersiz kald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir. Bir di\u011fer vurgusu da, bununla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 olarak, g\u00f6zlemlediklerinin hi\u00e7bir \u015fekilde \u201ckeyfi\u201d, \u201crastgele\u201d olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f olamayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, ampiristlerin iddia etti\u011finin aksine, her bir \u015feyin her bir \u015fey ile belirli bir \u201ctalimle\u201d birbirine ba\u011flanamayaca\u011f\u0131 vurgusudur. Yap\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekenin, bu gruplama-ayr\u0131\u015fma yollu \u015fekil alg\u0131s\u0131 ve genel \u015fekilzemin alg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n \u201cvon unten nach oben (a\u015fa\u011f\u0131dan yukar\u0131ya)\u201d hangi mekanizmalarla nelere ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak \u015fekillendi\u011finin anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131d\u0131r. Bir sonraki b\u00f6l\u00fcmde Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n, yaln\u0131zca alg\u0131 de\u011fil her t\u00fcrl\u00fc deneyimin, bamba\u015fka bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131yla ne \u015fekilde incelenmesi gerekti\u011fine dair d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleri aktar\u0131lacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Koffka\u2019n\u0131n \u015eekil-Zemin \u0130li\u015fkisine Dair Tespitleri ve Gottschaldt\u2019\u0131n \u201cG\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f \u015eekilleri\u201d<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Koffka\u2019n\u0131n 1936 tarihli \u201cPrinciples of Gestalt (Ge\u015ftalt\u2019\u0131n Prensipleri)\u201d eseri, h\u00e2l\u00e2 tam olarak cevapland\u0131r\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f, hatta sorulmas\u0131 \u201cunutturulmu\u015f\u201d bir\u00e7ok \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 sorunun soruldu\u011fu bir kitapt\u0131r24. Koffka giri\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde bu kitab\u0131n bir\u00e7ok bulgu sunaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ancak onlar\u0131 kopuk kopuk, adeta Madame Tussaud M\u00fczesi\u2019ndeki balmumundan e\u015fyalar gibi dizilmi\u015f \u201centeresanl\u0131klar\u201d olarak de\u011fil, tersine bir sistem bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 i\u00e7indeki yerleri itibariyle inceleyip yorumlayaca\u011f\u0131ndan bahseder (s. 9). Kitap, onbe\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc ve yedi y\u00fcz\u00fc a\u015fan sayfas\u0131yla kapsad\u0131\u011f\u0131 konular itibariyle, \u2018Ge\u015ftalt, alg\u0131ya dair \u00f6nemli \u00f6nermeler getirmi\u015ftir, ancak di\u011fer konularda ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z olmu\u015ftur\u2019 yarg\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 yerle bir eden cinsten bir kitapt\u0131r. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn psikoloji ders kitaplar\u0131 gibi okuyucuyu bulgulara \u201cbo\u011fmak\u201d yerine (o d\u00f6nemde bile \u00e7ok say\u0131da yay\u0131n\u0131n ve deney bulgusunun bulundu\u011fu unutulmamal\u0131d\u0131r) sorgulaya sorgulaya ilerleyen ve asl\u0131nda hep kendi kendimize sordu\u011fumuz \u2018nas\u0131l oluyor da\u2019 tipinde sorular soran bir kitapt\u0131r. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fcn psikoloji ders kitaplar\u0131 genelde bir\u00e7ok bilgi ve bulgu sunup okuyucuyu neleri merak etmesi gerekti\u011fine y\u00f6nlendirirken insan\u0131n kendine dair zaten deneyimleyip merak etti\u011fi ve bir t\u00fcrl\u00fc (h\u00e2len de) cevab\u0131n\u0131 bulamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir\u00e7ok sorusunu \u201cunutuverir\u201d. \u00d6te yandan Koffka\u2019n\u0131n kitab\u0131n\u0131 okurken insan, bug\u00fcn \u00e7o\u011fu \u201cunutulmu\u015f\u201d veya \u201cunutturulan\u201d sorularla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fabiliyor ve tam da bundan dolay\u0131, taptaze, bamba\u015fka bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 edinebilmek i\u00e7in kitab\u0131n okunmas\u0131n\u0131 tavsiye ederim. Bu kitab\u0131 Wertheimer ve K\u00f6hler\u2019\u0131n kitaplar\u0131ndan ay\u0131ran bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi de rahat okunabilirli\u011fi, son derece \u201cokuyucu dostu\u201d olu\u015fudur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Koffka, bu kitab\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6rsel alg\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerinde (Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n 1923 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda yaln\u0131zca gruplama prensiplerine odaklan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan eksik kalan) \u015fekil-zemin alg\u0131s\u0131na dair birka\u00e7 tespitte bulunur. \u015eekil 25\u2019deki uyarana bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda, Koffka\u2019n\u0131n Rubin\u2019den ilham alarak bir \u015fekil-zemin uyaran\u0131 olu\u015fturdu\u011funu g\u00f6rebiliriz. Ki\u015filerin neden a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak, bu spesifik \u015feklin beyaz olarak g\u00f6sterilmi\u015f25 k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 \u015fekil, di\u011ferini zemin olarak g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc sorar ve burada muhtemelen daha az karma\u015f\u0131k olan\u0131n zemin, daha karma\u015f\u0131k olan\u0131n ise \u015fekil olarak belirdi\u011fini dile getirir. Tabi\u00ee merakl\u0131 okuyucu burada acaba birinin dikey-d\u00fcz, di\u011ferinin ise tepeden a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 olmas\u0131 da bir neden olabilir mi diye sorabilir. Ancak tepedeki arka plan pekala ba\u015f a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 bir \u201c\u015fey\u201d olarak de\u011fil, \u00f6rne\u011fin ba\u015f a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 olmayan eski tip ahizeli bir telefon olarak da alg\u0131lanabilir. Koffka\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nermesi karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k-basitlik, ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131l\u0131k-ayr\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131k, heterojenlik-homojenliktir; yani karma\u015f\u0131k, ayr\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131 daha bol ve daha heterojen olan b\u00f6lgenin \u015fekil, daha basit, daha az ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131, daha homojen olan b\u00f6lgenin ise zemin olaca\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcndedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 25. (Koffka, 1936)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Bir ba\u015fka b\u00f6l\u00fcmde \u015fekil-zemin olu\u015fumunu bu sefer alanlar\u0131n oranlar\u0131 baz\u0131nda ele al\u0131r. Bu sefer ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131l\u0131k, karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k, heterojenlik sabit tutulur ve yaln\u0131zca b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fck oranlar\u0131 manip\u00fcle edilir (\u015eekil 26 a ve b). Alanlar \u015eekil 26a\u2019daki gibi e\u015fit tutuldu\u011funda beyaz ile siyah olan \u00e7apraz\u0131n e\u015fit olas\u0131l\u0131kla \u015fekil veya zemin oldu\u011funu, \u00f6te yandan \u00e7aprazlardan biri k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fclt\u00fcl\u00fcp di\u011feri b\u00fcy\u00fct\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde (b) k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck olan\u0131n \u015fekil olmaya daha \u201cyatk\u0131n\u201d oldu\u011funu belirtir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 26. (Koffka, 1936)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Koffka\u2019n\u0131n ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir ba\u015fka ilgi \u00e7ekici ve di\u011ferlerinden farkl\u0131 olarak g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz ana ak\u0131m Ge\u015ftalt anlat\u0131lar\u0131nda bahsi ge\u00e7meyen husus, \u015fekil olan\u0131n ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 ayr\u0131nt\u0131lara dairdir (Koffka\u2019n\u0131n deyimiyle \u201carticulation\u201d). Bu uygulamay\u0131 ders ortam\u0131nda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan bahseder ve kendisinin \u015eekil 27a g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde hemen hep \u00e7izgili \u00e7arp\u0131 i\u015faretinin \u015fekil olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclece\u011fini beklerken beyaz \u00e7arp\u0131 i\u015faretinin \u015fekil olma e\u011filimi g\u00f6sterdi\u011finden bahseder. \u015eekil 27b g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde ise kimi zaman beyaz olan \u00e7arp\u0131n\u0131n kimi zaman ise i\u00e7inde d\u00fczensizce \u00e7izilmi\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u015fekillerin oldu\u011fu \u00e7arp\u0131n\u0131n \u015fekil olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, \u015eekil 27c\u2019de ise arkadaki sekizgen \u015feklinin belirginle\u015fti\u011fi ve i\u00e7inde birbirine benzer ve b\u00fcy\u00fck bo\u015fluklu olarak kutucuklar\u0131n bulundu\u011fu k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131n bir arada bir \u00e7apraz olarak alg\u0131lanmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yler ve tabi\u00ee bunun titiz deney serileriyle daha sistematik olarak incelenmesi gerekti\u011fini belirtir.26 Asl\u0131nda Koffka\u2019n\u0131n burada mercek alt\u0131na ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fey bir yan\u0131yla da, Palmer\u2019\u0131n 1992 makalesinde bir yeni gruplama ilkesi olarak \u00f6nerdi\u011fi \u201cortak alan\u201d (\u2018common region\u2019) ile de kesi\u015fir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 27a-c (Koffka, 1936)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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\u015eekil 28a ve b (Koffka, 1936)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

\u015eekil-zemin meselesini tahlil ederken Koffka bir de simetriyi olas\u0131 bir fakt\u00f6r olarak sunar. Bunun i\u00e7in de \u015eekil 28a ve b\u2019deki uyaranlar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterir. \u015eekil 25\u2019ten farkl\u0131 olarak beyaz ve siyah alanlar\u0131n yaln\u0131zca biri simetriktir. Bu levhalara bakan ki\u015filerin 28a\u2019da simetrik olan siyah \u015feridi, 28b\u2019de ise simetrik olan beyaz \u015feridi \u015fekil olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcr. Asimetrik olan\u0131n\u0131 \u015fekil olarak g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnse de kolay de\u011fildir, g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde de simetrik olandaki gibi kararl\u0131 de\u011fildir, \u015fekil \u00f6zelli\u011fi anl\u0131k g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcp tekrar di\u011ferine ge\u00e7er.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Di\u011fer yandan, \u015fekil-zemin ili\u015fkisiyle ilintili olarak b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn i\u00e7inde gizlenmi\u015f \u015fekiller konusuna da de\u011finmek gerekir. Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n isimlerinden Kurt Gottschaldt\u2019\u0131n yo\u011funla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu olgu, \u015fekillerin zemin i\u00e7inde belirli bir \u015fekilde \u201cg\u00f6m\u00fclerek\u201d g\u00f6r\u00fcnmez k\u0131l\u0131nmalar\u0131 \u00fczerine kuruludur. \u00d6rne\u011fin \u015eekil 29b\u2019de kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131dan \u015eekil 29a\u2019da g\u00f6sterilen \u015feklin o g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc i\u00e7inde bulunmas\u0131 istenir.27 G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde bu tarz yetiler \u201cEmbedded Figures Test (G\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f \u015eekiller Testi)\u201d adl\u0131 test bataryalar\u0131yla (Witkin ve ark., 1971) \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclmektedir. \u00d6rne\u011fin otizm spektrumlu \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n bu tarz g\u00f6m\u00fclm\u00fc\u015f \u015fekilleri bulmada normal geli\u015fimli \u00e7ocuklardan daha iyi olduklar\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir (Jolliffe ve Baron-Cohen, 1994; Van der Hallen ve ark., 2018).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 29a ve b (Gottschaldt, 1926)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

2.2. Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131n\u0131n Kavramsal \u00d6nermeleri<\/em><\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck \u201c\u00f6fkesi\u201d bir bilim olarak psikolojinin durmadan bulgular \u00fcretmesi ve bu bulgular manzumesinde \u201cde\u011fer\u201d, \u201canlam\u201d gibi \u015feylere yer vermemesidir. K\u00f6hler, hayli felsefi ve okunmas\u0131 me\u015fakkatli 1938 tarihli \u201cA Place of Values in a World of Facts (Olgular D\u00fcnyas\u0131nda De\u011ferlerin Yeri)\u201d kitab\u0131nda bundan s\u00f6z eder. Hem K\u00f6hler hem Koffka, o d\u00f6nemin ve ne yaz\u0131k ki g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz psikoloji bilimi i\u00e7in belki daha da ge\u00e7erli olan, birbirinden kopuk kalm\u0131\u015f, \u201cilgin\u00e7 bulgular\u201d sunma gayretlerinin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 t\u0131kan\u0131kl\u0131\u011fa i\u015faret eder. K\u00f6hler 1938 tarihli kitab\u0131nda, e\u011fer en b\u00fcy\u00fck sorular hakk\u0131nda eksik, noksan, hatta k\u00f6t\u00fc yazmak ile vasat sorular hakk\u0131nda m\u00fckemmel yazmak aras\u0131nda bir tercih olacaksa kendi tercihinin birinciden yana olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir (s. 6\u20137). Yine hem K\u00f6hler hem Koffka, mevcut psikoloji biliminin biriktirdi\u011fi bulgular\u0131n, ya en mekanistik ve anlamdan uzak (\u2018rastgele \u015fekilde pe\u015f pe\u015fe gelerek birbirine ba\u011flanan duyulardan bili\u015f do\u011far\u2019) bir yerden de\u011ferlendirilmesini ve b\u00f6ylece en can al\u0131c\u0131 taraf\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcyle \u0131skalanmas\u0131n\u0131 ya da dirimselci (\u2018vitalistik\u2019) 28 bir bak\u0131\u015f i\u00e7inde s\u00fcrekli yeni terimler icat edilip bunlar\u0131n do\u011fu\u015ftan verili olmas\u0131 \u00fczerinden a\u00e7\u0131klanmas\u0131n\u0131 ele\u015ftirir. \u0130lkini indirgemecilik, ikincisini ise kolayc\u0131l\u0131k olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcrler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

K\u00f6hler kitab\u0131nda ilgin\u00e7 bir \u00f6rnek sunar. Hikaye \u015f\u00f6yledir: Bir do\u011fa bilimleri m\u00fczesinde ilgin\u00e7 bir sergi vard\u0131r. Raflar\u0131n birinde, insan\u0131 olu\u015fturan oksijen, hidrojen, azot vb. t\u00fcm maddeler, insan v\u00fccudundaki miktarlar\u0131na g\u00f6re farkl\u0131 boylarda k\u00fcplerle temsil edilir. Her bir k\u00fcp\u00fcn \u00fcst\u00fcnde de, o miktar\u0131n parasal de\u011feri, o d\u00f6nemin fiyatlar\u0131yla etiketlenmi\u015ftir. Bu hesaba g\u00f6re, hepsi \u00fcst \u00fcste topland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, insan\u0131n \u201cfiyat\u0131\u201d o d\u00f6nemin paras\u0131yla yakla\u015f\u0131k 63 dolara denk gelir. Bu \u00f6rnekle ba\u015flayarak ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bir \u015fekilde neden par\u00e7alar\u0131n toplam\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015fturduklar\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc do\u011fru ifade edemeyece\u011fini vurgular. Christian von Ehrenfels\u2019den farkl\u0131 olarak K\u00f6hler, par\u00e7alar\u0131n toplam\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcnden daha fazla olarak da adland\u0131r\u0131lmamas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n da yine say\u0131sal niceliksel bir de\u011ferlendirme olarak eksik kalaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 vurgular. Ger\u00e7ekte par\u00e7alar\u0131n toplam\u0131 niteliksel olarak farkl\u0131 bir \u015fey meydana getirir ve psikolojinin amac\u0131 tam olarak bu niteliksele odaklanmakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Par\u00e7alar ve B\u00fct\u00fcn: Mikroskopik ve Makroskopik Bak\u0131\u015f<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n en \u00f6nemli kavramsal \u00f6nermesi, bir b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn, i\u00e7inde ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 par\u00e7alara do\u011frudan etki etti\u011fi vurgusudur. Bu vurguyla o zamana kadar bask\u0131n olan ve hatta g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde de h\u00e2l\u00e2 bask\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 koruyan \u2018par\u00e7alar\u0131 inceleyip, bilemediniz onlar\u0131n birbiriyle lokal \u00f6l\u00e7ekteki etkile\u015fimlerini tespit edip b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc anlayabiliriz\u2019 bak\u0131\u015f\u0131na ba\u015fkald\u0131r\u0131r. \u201c2.1 Kuram\u0131n Ana Tespitleri\u201d b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde sunulan her bir husus tam da bu perspektif i\u00e7inde de\u011ferlendirilmelidir. Ge\u015ftalt bak\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan bir uyaran\u0131n alg\u0131lanmas\u0131n\u0131 anlamak istiyorsak onun ilk \u00f6nce b\u00fct\u00fcnsel konfig\u00fcrasyonunu tespit edip ard\u0131ndan b\u00fct\u00fcnselin o spesifik konfig\u00fcrasyonun i\u00e7indeki par\u00e7alar \u00fcst\u00fcndeki \u201calan\u201d etkisine bak\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u201cAlan\u201d tabiri o d\u00f6nemin fizik kuram\u0131ndan ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan ve tam da onunla e\u015fle\u015ftirilerek \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fclen bir kavramd\u0131r. K\u00f6hler psikoloj ve felsefe e\u011fitimi yan\u0131 s\u0131ra fizik e\u011fitimi de alm\u0131\u015f, 1918 Nobel \u00f6d\u00fcll\u00fc teorik fizik\u00e7i Max Planck\u2019\u0131n \u00f6\u011frencisi olmu\u015f biridir. Bu altyap\u0131s\u0131 hem 1920 hem 1938 kitab\u0131 boyunca g\u00f6r\u00fclebiliyor. Az \u00f6nce de\u011finilen \u201calan etkisinin\u201d en basit \u00f6rneklerinden biri, Koffka\u2019n\u0131n kitab\u0131ndaki \u015fu \u00f6rnektir:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 30. (Koffka, 1936)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Buna g\u00f6re ortadaki \u00e7izgi iki farkl\u0131 \u201cortamda\u201d farkl\u0131 uzunlukta g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir. Bunun kolayca basit, mekanistik bir \u00f6\u011frenme modeliyle a\u00e7\u0131klanamayaca\u011f\u0131 rahat\u00e7a anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131 me\u015fhur M\u00fcller-Lyer yan\u0131lsamas\u0131ndan (\u015eekil 31) da bahseder, hatta Rubin, 1915 kitab\u0131nda s\u00f6z konusu iki \u015fekil hareket halinde \u201cgit-gel\u201d y\u00f6ntemiyle g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde yatay \u00e7izginin sabitlendi\u011fi ve yan\u0131lsaman\u0131n kayboldu\u011funu tespit eden bir deneye at\u0131f yapar. Uyaran sabit olarak g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde ise, yatay \u00e7izgiye y\u00f6nelik alg\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcnden kaynaklanan bir etkiye maruz kald\u0131\u011f\u0131, u\u00e7lar d\u0131\u015fa d\u00f6n\u00fck oldu\u011funda uyaran\u0131n genel alan\u0131n\u0131n geni\u015fleyerek \u00e7izgiyi uzatan, u\u00e7lar i\u00e7e d\u00f6n\u00fck oldu\u011funda ise tersine daraltan bir etki yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 dile getirilir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131na g\u00f6re bu yan\u0131lsama uyaran\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fcn yatay \u00e7izgi \u00fczerinde yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 alan etkisi sonucu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar.29<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 31<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Bir ba\u015fka ilgin\u00e7 \u00f6rnek Koffka\u2019n\u0131n kitab\u0131nda aktard\u0131\u011f\u0131 R\u00e9v\u00e9sz\u2019in Jastrow yan\u0131lsamas\u0131 \u00fczerine tavuklarla yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 deneydir. Bu deneyde tavuklara ko\u015fullama yoluyla her zaman iki kaptan b\u00fcy\u00fck olan\u0131ndan yemlerini yemeleri \u00f6\u011fretilir. Bu \u00f6\u011fretildikten sonra \u00f6nlerine iki e\u015fit kap \u015eekil 32a\u2019daki gibi bir konumlan\u0131\u015f ile verilir. Tavuklar B\u2019den yer, \u00f6te yandan iki kap \u015eekil 32b\u2019deki gibi sunuldu\u011funda bu tercih ortadan kalkar. Koffka bu bulguyu s\u00f6z konusu yan\u0131lsaman\u0131n tavuklarda da i\u015fledi\u011fine g\u00f6re bunun yo\u011fun anlamsal, yorumsal veya deneyimsel bir birikim sonras\u0131 olamayaca\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret eder.30 Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle par\u00e7alar\u0131n uzam b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fc i\u00e7indeki spesifik konumlan\u0131\u015flar\u0131n, herbirinin alg\u0131lan\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcnde yo\u011fun bir etkisi mevcuttur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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\u015eekil 32a \/ \u015eekil 32b<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n \u2018b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn par\u00e7alar \u00fczerindeki etkisi\u2019 \u00f6nermesine ili\u015fkin s\u0131k\u00e7a kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131lan bir yanl\u0131\u015f anlamaya i\u015faret etmek gerekir (bk. Henle, 1992). Kuram, san\u0131lan\u0131n aksine, \u201cholistik\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lamaz \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc tam te\u015fekk\u00fcll\u00fc bir holizm par\u00e7alar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 inkar eder, oysa Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131 par\u00e7alar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6nemser, onlar\u0131 inceler ve deneylerinde \u2013daha \u00f6nce de g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz gibi \u2014 par\u00e7a olma \u00f6zellikleriyle manip\u00fcle eder. Bunun i\u00e7in bu b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 mikroskopik ve makroskopik bak\u0131\u015f olarak adland\u0131rd\u0131k. Kurucular\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7\u00fc de do\u011fal olarak mikroskopik taraf\u0131n\u0131n da incelenmesi gerekti\u011fini ama onu incelerken makroskopik \u00f6zelli\u011fin, yani sistemin sundu\u011fu b\u00fct\u00fcnselli\u011fin atlanmamas\u0131 gerekti\u011finin alt\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7izer. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc onlara g\u00f6re makroskopik olan mikroskopi\u011fi etkiler ve i\u015fin bu taraf\u0131 s\u00fcrekli g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilir veya hafifsenir. K\u00f6hler, deneysel psikolojinin hali haz\u0131rdaki bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n yaln\u0131zca mikroskopik olan\u0131 hakiki, onun olu\u015fturdu\u011fu b\u00fcy\u00fck sistemi ise sanki \u201chayaliymi\u015f\u201d gibi ele ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, bunun yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu vurgular. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bilimsel ilgiye mazhar her objenin ister fizikte ister kimyada ister ba\u015fka bir alanda hem makroskopik hem mikroskopik \u00f6zellikleri vard\u0131r. Burada \u00f6rne\u011fini m\u00fczikten verir ve herhangi bir melodide hi\u00e7bir notan\u0131n ne tek ba\u015f\u0131na ne de basit bir pe\u015f pe\u015felilik i\u00e7inde bir anlam ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, aksine, her notan\u0131n anlam\u0131n\u0131n do\u011frudan t\u00fcm melodinin ait oldu\u011fu sistemden (\u00f6rne\u011fin gamdan) do\u011fdu\u011funu vurgular. Zaman\u0131nda dili de ko\u015fullama yollu bir uyaran zincirlemesi olarak a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan Davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar ve di\u011fer ampiristler bunda ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011fa u\u011fram\u0131\u015f ve bir bak\u0131ma 1950\u2019lerde, aralar\u0131nda dilbilimci ve kuramc\u0131 Chomsky gibi \u00f6nemli isimlerin de bulundu\u011fu \u201cbili\u015fsel devrim\u201din yolunun a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131na katk\u0131 sunmu\u015flard\u0131r. Bu vesileyle dil de, b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n anlam ve i\u015flevini belirledi\u011fi \u00f6nermesine dair \u00e7ok iyi bir \u00f6rnek te\u015fkil eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ba\u011flam, Alan, Rastgeleli\u011fe Kar\u015f\u0131 Str\u00fckt\u00fcr<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

K\u00f6hler kitab\u0131nda, deneyimlenen (yani \u201cfenomenal\u201d) d\u00fcnyan\u0131n \u201cne ald\u0131r\u0131\u015fs\u0131z bir mozaik ne de ald\u0131r\u0131\u015fs\u0131z bir d\u00fczlemlilik\u201d arz etti\u011fini \u0131srarla vurgular (K\u00f6hler, 1936, s. 84\u201385). Buradaki \u201cald\u0131r\u0131\u015fs\u0131z (indifferent)\u201d, \u201cmozaik\u201d ve \u201cd\u00fczlemlilik (continuum)\u201d kavramlar\u0131 her \u015feyin her \u015feyle ba\u011fda\u015fabilece\u011fini, her t\u00fcrl\u00fc d\u00fczlemde yan yana gelebilece\u011fini iddia eden ampirist bak\u0131\u015fa atfen kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Oysa Ge\u015ftalt\u00e7\u0131lara g\u00f6re fenomenal d\u00fcnya, bir alan, bir sahad\u0131r ve kendi i\u00e7inde karma\u015f\u0131k ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131k dinamikleri olan, birbirinden ayr\u0131\u015fabilen veya birle\u015febilen birimleri ve ba\u011flamlar\u0131 kapsayan bir sistemdir. K\u00f6hler, fizik kuramlar\u0131ndan da yola \u00e7\u0131karak d\u0131\u015f d\u00fcnyan\u0131n bir str\u00fckt\u00fcr\u00fc oldu\u011funu ve bundan dolay\u0131 o str\u00fckt\u00fcrle \u201caynalanan\u201d bir deneyimsel d\u00fcnyan\u0131n da bulunmas\u0131n\u0131n \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 olmayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, as\u0131l bunun olmamas\u0131n\u0131n \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir. Bu da bizi K\u00f6hler\u2019in bu fikri bir ad\u0131m \u00f6teye ta\u015f\u0131maya \u00e7al\u0131\u015farak ortaya att\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u201cizomorfizm\u201d kavram\u0131na g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130zomorfizm<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kavram bu ad\u0131yla ilk K\u00f6hler\u2019de kar\u015f\u0131m\u0131za \u00e7\u0131kar ve bunun \u00fczerine, belki de fizik arka plan\u0131 nedeniyle en \u00e7ok kafa yoran K\u00f6hler\u2019in \u00e7ok basit bir \u00f6nermesi vard\u0131r. Fiziksel d\u00fcnyadaki \u015feylerin, onlar\u0131n ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi ile uyumlu fizyolojik bir yans\u0131mas\u0131 olmal\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, fiziksel uzamdaki fil ile fenomenal olarak alg\u0131lanan fil aras\u0131nda \u015fekil-zemin ili\u015fkisi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bir \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015f\u00fckl\u00fck olmal\u0131d\u0131r der. Bu yans\u0131man\u0131n kavramsal olarak (yani bire bir de\u011fil ama ili\u015fkisellik a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n str\u00fckt\u00fcr\u00fc temelinde) bir \u201ce\u015fyap\u0131sall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201d olmal\u0131d\u0131r diye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr. Ek olarak, yeni bulgular \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, beyin olgular\u0131yla en az\u0131ndan kimi fenomenal olgular aras\u0131nda bir ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131n oldu\u011funun art\u0131k d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclebilece\u011fini vurgular. Burada \u201csinir sisteminin t\u00fcm par\u00e7alar\u0131 birbiriyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r, hi\u00e7bir par\u00e7a di\u011ferlerini etkilemeden ve di\u011ferleri taraf\u0131ndan etkilenmeden tepkide bulunmaz ve asla tam olarak hareketsiz oldu\u011fu bir zaman yoktur\u201d31 (Allen ve Schwartz, 1940\u2019dan al\u0131nt\u0131lanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r) diyen Sherrington\u2019a at\u0131f yapar. Keza Adrian ve arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n ganglion h\u00fccreleri, g\u00f6z\u00fcn a\u011f tabakas\u0131 ve kortikal tabakalar\u0131n kimi ko\u015fullarda belirgin derecede birbiriyle etkile\u015fimli aktivite g\u00f6sterdi\u011finden bahseder. Asl\u0131nda beynin sinir sisteminin de \u015fekil-zemin etkile\u015fimine sahip olaca\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcnde ilgin\u00e7 bir analoji de kurar, bir yandan str\u00fckt\u00fcr, \u015fekil arzeden belirgin sinir aktivasyonlar\u0131 olurken bir yandan da t\u00fcm sistemin bir \u201czemin\u201d \u2014 g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz terminolojisiyle- \u2018g\u00fcr\u00fclt\u00fcs\u00fc\u2019 olabilece\u011fini belirtir ve \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 bi\u00e7imde, tam o d\u00f6nemlerde bitkisel hayattaki canl\u0131n\u0131n beyin dalgalar\u0131n\u0131 inceleyen fizyologlar\u0131n bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131n yak\u0131ndan takip edilmesi gerekti\u011fini vurgular.32<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Co\u011frafi \u00c7evre, Fenomenal33 \u00c7evre ve Canl\u0131n\u0131n Anlam ve De\u011ferler \u2018Manzumesi\u2019<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Koffka bu konuyu bir \u00f6rnekle anlat\u0131r. Korkun\u00e7 bir kar f\u0131rt\u0131nas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda at s\u0131rt\u0131nda bir adam bir hana var\u0131r. Adam\u0131 g\u00f6ren hanc\u0131 \u015fa\u015f\u0131r\u0131r ve nereden geldi\u011fini sorar, adam koluyla i\u015faret eder, hanc\u0131 hayret i\u00e7inde dev Konstanz g\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00fczerinden geldi\u011fini bilip bilmedi\u011fini sorar. Koffka burada iki ger\u00e7ekli\u011fin bulundu\u011funu belirtir. Biri fiziki ger\u00e7eklik veya onun kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 tabirle \u201c\u00e7o\u011frafi \u00e7evre\u201d yani donmu\u015f g\u00f6l. Di\u011feri ise adam\u0131n fenomenal ger\u00e7e\u011fi, o da normal bir d\u00fczl\u00fckten ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildir \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ki\u015fi, donmu\u015f bir g\u00f6l\u00fcn \u00fczerinden geldi\u011finin fark\u0131nda de\u011fildir. Ge\u015ftalt i\u015fte tam burada devreye girer. Davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 ekol\u00fcn\u00fcn \u201cuyaran-tepkicileri\u201d gibi yaln\u0131zca fiziki d\u0131\u015f d\u00fcnyan\u0131n ger\u00e7e\u011fi ile yetinmez, o d\u0131\u015f d\u00fcnyay\u0131 alg\u0131layan, anlamland\u0131ran canl\u0131n\u0131n \u201cfenomenal \u00e7evresi\u201dni de denkleme katar \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc onu katmazsa yanl\u0131\u015f veya eksik bir yarg\u0131da bulunabilir.34 Koffka\u2019n\u0131n verdi\u011fi bir di\u011fer \u00f6rnek ise K\u00f6hler\u2019\u0131n 1914 ile 1920 aras\u0131nda Tenerife\u2019de \u015fempanzelerin problem \u00e7\u00f6zme yetileri \u00fczerine y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131ndand\u0131r. \u015eempanzeler tavanda eri\u015femedikleri y\u00fckseklikte as\u0131l\u0131 bir muzla kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yad\u0131r. Ortada sa\u011fda solda duran sand\u0131klar vard\u0131r. \u015eempanzelerin biri sand\u0131klar\u0131n birinin \u00fcst\u00fcne oturup muza bakarken di\u011feri sand\u0131klardan birini al\u0131p muzun as\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011fu yere ta\u015f\u0131y\u0131p sand\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p muza eri\u015fmeyi dener. Co\u011frafi \u00e7evre her iki \u015fempanze i\u00e7in ayn\u0131d\u0131r ama bir \u015fempanze i\u00e7in o sand\u0131klar \u00fcst\u00fcne oturulan nesnelerdir, di\u011feri i\u00e7in ise y\u00fckse\u011fe \u00e7\u0131kmay\u0131 sa\u011flayabilen nesnedir.35<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fenomenal \u00e7evre hem o anda bulunan fiziksel uzam-zamanla hem de canl\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7mi\u015f deneyimleri ve o \u00e7evreyle ili\u015fkileni\u015f bi\u00e7imi, oda\u011f\u0131 ve motivasyonuyla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131 herhangi bir olguyu incelerken bir yandan hem fiziksel uzam-zaman\u0131n alan etkilerini, hem bunun fenomenal yans\u0131mas\u0131n\u0131, hem de deneyimleyenin o alana y\u00f6nelik motivasyonu ve deneyimini hesaba katar.36 Kuram\u0131n bu taraf\u0131 bug\u00fcn sosyal psikoloji diye ay\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z alanda yap\u0131lan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarda b\u00fcsb\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Amerikan alanyaz\u0131n\u0131nda Ge\u015ftalt\u00e7\u0131 kimli\u011fi nedense pek dile getirilmeyen sosyal psikolog Solomon Asch\u2019\u0131n 1956 deneyine bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda bunu g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Deneyde ki\u015filere, do\u011fru cevab\u0131 bariz olan bir alg\u0131 d\u00fczene\u011fi sunulur (\u015eekil 33). Ancak grup i\u00e7inde herkes \u2013deneyin tasar\u0131m\u0131 \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde \u2014 ayn\u0131 ortak yanl\u0131\u015f cevab\u0131 verdi\u011finden, olup bitenden habersiz kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131 da yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu bile bile farkl\u0131la\u015fmamak u\u011fruna ayn\u0131 yanl\u0131\u015f cevab\u0131 vermeye meyleder. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bir anda birey, bulundu\u011fu k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck grup ortam\u0131n\u0131n alan g\u00fcc\u00fcne maruz kal\u0131r ve fenomenal ger\u00e7e\u011fini adeta ink\u00e2r eder. Tabi\u00ee kimin grup karar\u0131na boyun e\u011fdi\u011fi, kimin (\u00e7ok\u00e7a tedirginlik, g\u00fcvensizlik ve grup i\u00e7inde yaln\u0131zla\u015fm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k hissi i\u00e7inde) e\u011fmedi\u011fi, bahsetti\u011fimiz Ge\u015ftalt bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 i\u00e7inde incelenmesi \u015fart olan \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc ana etmendir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"\/
\u015eekil 33. (Kaynak: Wikipedia commons)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Wertheimer\u2019\u0131n, do\u011fal halklar\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bi\u00e7imlerini inceledi\u011fi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 da bu konuya dair g\u00fczel bir \u00f6rnek te\u015fkil eder (Wertheimer, 1912b). \u00d6rne\u011fin, inceledi\u011fi toplulu\u011fun \u00fcyelerine d\u00fczl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn bir taraf\u0131nda iki a\u011fa\u00e7, o a\u011fa\u00e7lar\u0131n biraz uza\u011f\u0131nda ba\u015fka bir a\u011fa\u00e7 g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcne i\u015faret etti\u011finde ve toplam ka\u00e7 a\u011fa\u00e7 g\u00f6rd\u00fcklerini sordu\u011funda \u2018iki a\u011fa\u00e7 ve bir a\u011fa\u00e7\u2019 cevab\u0131n\u0131 al\u0131r. \u00d6te yandan \u00fc\u00e7 a\u011fac\u0131n yan yana oldu\u011fu bir tarafa i\u015faret etti\u011finde \u2018\u00fc\u00e7 a\u011fa\u00e7\u2019 cevab\u0131n\u0131 al\u0131r. \u0130lgin\u00e7 bir ba\u015fka \u00f6rnekte ise iki at \u201ciki\u201d, keza iki insan \u201ciki\u201d olarak say\u0131l\u0131r. Ama bir insan ile bir at yan yana g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bunu \u201cbir binici\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131rlar \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc art\u0131k alg\u0131lad\u0131klar\u0131, soyut bir ikilikten \u00e7ok yepyeni, tekil bir birle\u015fimdir. Wertheimer bu farkl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 yanl\u0131\u015f bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bi\u00e7imi olarak ele almaz, tersine ayn\u0131 fiziksel \u00e7evrenin farkl\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrlenmeler sonucu ne kadar farkl\u0131 deneyimlenip anlamland\u0131r\u0131labildi\u011fini ve bunlardan hi\u00e7birinin rastgele, \u201canlams\u0131z\u201d olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, tersine her birinin kendi i\u00e7inde bir mant\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve yap\u0131sall\u0131\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011funa i\u015faret eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sonu\u00e7 Yerine: Ge\u015ftalt Kuram\u0131 Nedir ve Ne De\u011fildir\u2026<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n en kritik vurgusu, herhangi bir uyaran \u00e7evresinin bir b\u00fct\u00fcn olarak ele al\u0131nmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fi \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc o b\u00fct\u00fcnsel konfig\u00fcrasyonun, i\u00e7inde bar\u0131nd\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 par\u00e7ac\u0131klar\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn i\u00e7indeki i\u015flev ve anlam\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturdu\u011fu vurgusudur. K\u00f6hler\u2019in \u015fempanzelerinin, \u00f6rne\u011fin, muza ula\u015fmak i\u00e7in \u00f6nlerindeki sopalardan faydalan\u0131p faydalanmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, o sopalar\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn i\u00e7indeki konumland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131\u015flar\u0131na ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla belirginliklerine ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Sopalar karma bir zemin i\u00e7inde \u201cg\u00f6r\u00fclmez\u201d k\u0131l\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda onlar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcp, ay\u0131rt edip ara\u00e7 haline getirmeleri imkans\u0131zla\u015f\u0131r. Bu da yine, d\u0131\u015fsal uyaran \u00e7evresinin belirli tip konfig\u00fcrasyonunun ne kadar \u00f6nemli oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bir ara\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n ilk a\u015famas\u0131 bu b\u00fct\u00fcnsellik kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131 olmal\u0131d\u0131r. Bu bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00f6rne\u011fin James J. Gibson\u2019\u0131n \u201cdo\u011frudan alg\u0131\u201d kuram\u0131nda (ki bu tabiri ilk kullanan K\u00f6hler\u2019dir, Gibson, daha \u00f6nce bahsetti\u011fimiz gibi K\u00f6hler\u2019\u0131n seminerlerinin yak\u0131n takip\u00e7isi olmu\u015ftur) bulabiliriz. Gibson\u2019\u0131n kendi d\u00f6neminde yap\u0131lan alg\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na y\u00f6nelik en b\u00fcy\u00fck itiraz\u0131 da, fiziksel uzamdaki o b\u00fct\u00fcnselli\u011fin ve zenginli\u011fin \u0131skalanmas\u0131na y\u00f6nelikti. Ge\u015ftalt\u00e7\u0131lar gibi Gibson da, K\u00f6hler\u2019in deyimiyle \u2018mikroskopik bak\u0131\u015fla\u2019 bilim yapanlar\u0131n, ekolojik \u00e7evrenin asl\u0131nda, i\u00e7inde hareket eden canl\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan do\u011frudan ne kadar \u00e7ok anlaml\u0131 bilgi bar\u0131nd\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6zard\u0131 ettiklerini neredeyse k\u0131zg\u0131nl\u0131kla dile getirir (Gibson, 1992).37<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131 bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 i\u00e7inde bir ara\u015ft\u0131rman\u0131n ikinci a\u015famas\u0131 ise, Koffka\u2019n\u0131n tabiriyle fenomenal \u00e7evreyi anlamak ve incelemektir. Bunun i\u00e7in hem \u2014 zaten o d\u00f6nemlerde bile s\u00fcrekli yap\u0131lagelindi\u011fi gibi \u2014 davran\u0131\u015fsal veriler toplan\u0131p incelenmeli (\u00f6rne\u011fin, tepki h\u0131z\u0131, hat\u0131rlanan s\u00f6zc\u00fck miktarlar\u0131, bir b\u00f6l\u00fctleme deneyinde yap\u0131lan s\u0131n\u0131r i\u015faretlerinin say\u0131s\u0131, konumu vb.) hem de kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131n\u0131n (\u00f6rne\u011fin \u00e7ocuk, yeti\u015fkin, ya\u015fl\u0131, k\u00fclt\u00fcr \/sosyal grup A veya B\u2019den vb.) deneyi, uyaranlar\u0131 ve yapt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 alg\u0131lay\u0131\u015f ve anlamland\u0131r\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7imine bak\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin \u015fempanze deneylerinde K\u00f6hler, \u015fempanzelerin mevcut ortam\u0131 nas\u0131l alg\u0131lad\u0131\u011f\u0131na odaklan\u0131r. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla \u015fempanzelerin g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi birbirinden farkl\u0131 davran\u0131\u015f ve tav\u0131rlar\u0131 yaln\u0131zca kendi sundu\u011fu d\u00fczene\u011fe ili\u015fkin de\u011ferlendirmez, onlar\u0131n fenomenal \u00e7evresinden de (\u00f6rne\u011fin boylar\u0131 poslar\u0131, ge\u00e7mi\u015fte o alanla veya benzer alanlarla ili\u015fkileni\u015f deneyimleri vb.) de\u011ferlendirmeye \u00f6zen g\u00f6sterir.38 Benzer \u015fekilde Wertheimer, say\u0131 kavram\u0131n\u0131 inceledi\u011fi toplulu\u011fun bireylerine \u201c1 insan ve 1 at toplam ka\u00e7 eder?\u201d sorusunu sordu\u011funda \u201c2\u201d diyenleri do\u011fru cevaplayanlardan say\u0131p \u201c2\u201d cevab\u0131n\u0131 vermeyenleri yanl\u0131\u015f cevaplayanlardan saymakla yetinseydi, bu bireylerde \u2018say\u0131 toplam\u0131\u2019 kavram\u0131n\u0131n olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 sonucuna varacakt\u0131. Ancak, verdikleri cevaplar, yapt\u0131klar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamalar inceledi\u011fi takdirde bu ki\u015filerin neden \u201c1 insan ve 1 at toplam ka\u00e7 eder?\u201d sorusuna \u201c1\u201d dedi\u011fini anlayabiliriz \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc cevaplar\u0131 asl\u0131nda \u201c1 binici\u201ddir. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, daha \u00f6nce de belirtti\u011fimiz gibi bir insan ve bir at bu toplulu\u011fun bireylerinin zihninde yeni \u201cpar\u00e7alanamaz\u201d bir Ge\u015ftalta kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

E\u011fer nihayet g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz deneysel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda bu tarz zenginle\u015ftirilmi\u015f y\u00f6ntemler uygulanmaya ba\u015flan\u0131rsa, buradan \u00e7\u0131kan bilgiler kalitatif bir incelemeyle ara\u015ft\u0131rma raporunda da yer bulabilmelidir. Oysa g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde, hele ki son 40\u201350 y\u0131lda, Amerikan eksenli \u201ch\u0131zl\u0131\u201d, \u201cpratik\u201d bilim bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 her tarafa n\u00fcfuz etmi\u015f durumda. Bilimciler, s\u00fcrekli yay\u0131n yapma bask\u0131s\u0131 alt\u0131nda \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 \u201caceleyle\u201d yaz\u0131yor, makalelerin giri\u015f ve tart\u0131\u015fma k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131 giderek daha \u00f6zensiz ve eksik kal\u0131yor ve b\u0131rak\u0131n olabildi\u011fince t\u00fcm mevcut bulgular\u0131n bulunup ili\u015fkilendirilmesi, bulgular\u0131n bir \u00e7o\u011fu tekrarlanam\u0131yor dahi (bk. Zwaan ve ark., 2018). Bu \u201ch\u0131z histerisi\u201d i\u00e7inde de makalelere uzunluk k\u0131s\u0131t\u0131, kimi zaman kullan\u0131lan referanslar i\u00e7in \u201cson 20 y\u0131ldan eski olmas\u0131n\u201d bask\u0131s\u0131 getirilebiliyor ve b\u00f6ylece asl\u0131nda \u00e7ok tehlikeli bilgi kopukluklar\u0131n\u0131n yolu a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131yor. Ve t\u00fcm bunlar\u0131n aras\u0131nda belki de en zarar vericisi, bulgular\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmekten \u00e7ok t\u00fcketmeye haz\u0131r, olabildi\u011fince basit ve net bir \u201chik\u00e2yeleme\u201d paketiyle sunulmas\u0131 bask\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r. Durum b\u00f6yle olunca, bu tarz kat\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131 deneyimlerinin aktar\u0131mlar\u0131 do\u011fal olarak hem dergi edit\u00f6rleri hem makaleleri de\u011ferlendirenlerce \u201cgereksiz\u201d, \u201cfazlal\u0131k\u201d olarak adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131p \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131l\u0131yor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131 oda\u011f\u0131na ald\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z bu makale psikolojinin bilim tarihi i\u00e7inde asl\u0131nda k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir \u201cbellek tazeleme\u201d \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 da say\u0131labilir. Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n belki de en heyecan verici taraf\u0131, psikolojinin bilim tarihi i\u00e7inde \u2014 hele ki Anglo-Amerikan psikoloji ekol\u00fcn\u00fcn adeta \u2018dayatmas\u0131yla\u2019 \u2014 her \u015feyin iki z\u0131t kamp \u00fczerinden tan\u0131mlan\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 t\u00fcm\u00fcyle reddetmesidir. K\u00f6hler 1938 tarihli kitab\u0131nda bu ikilili\u011fe hapsolmay\u0131 reddedi\u015fi yo\u011fun bir \u015fekilde i\u015fler. Bu kuram, mekanistik bak\u0131\u015f kadar dirimselci (\u2018vitalistik\u2019) bak\u0131\u015f\u0131 da reddeder. Keza yaln\u0131zca par\u00e7ac\u0131klara odaklanan bak\u0131\u015f gibi b\u00fct\u00fcn i\u00e7indeki par\u00e7alar\u0131 incelenemez olarak g\u00f6ren holizmi de reddeder. Ama belki de en \u00f6nemlisi, \u201cdo\u011fu\u015ftan m\u0131\u201d, \u201cedinilmi\u015f mi\u201d sorusunun anlams\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret eder, edinilmi\u015fliklerin hakk\u0131n\u0131 verir ama di\u011fer taraf\u0131 da bir kolayc\u0131l\u0131k i\u00e7inde \u201cdo\u011fu\u015ftan\u201d olarak de\u011fil maddenin ve evrenin fizik kuramlar\u0131 \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde ele al\u0131r. Bu bak\u0131\u015f ile \u201cdo\u011fu\u015ftanc\u0131\u201d bak\u0131\u015f ne yaz\u0131k ki \u00e7ok\u00e7a kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin Wagemans ve arkada\u015flar\u0131 (2012) yo\u011fun bir emek ile Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n y\u00fcz\u00fcnc\u00fc y\u0131l\u0131 u\u011fruna yazd\u0131klar\u0131 makalede bile rahat\u00e7a \u201cdo\u011fu\u015ftan gelen kanunlar\u201d atf\u0131n\u0131 yapar. Oysa bunun ne kadar yanl\u0131\u015f bir \u00e7\u0131karsama oldu\u011funu g\u00f6rmek i\u00e7in K\u00f6hler\u2019\u0131n \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 1950 makalesini okumak yeterli olurdu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu makalenin amac\u0131; orjinal kuram\u0131 hakk\u0131nda \u00e7ok az \u015fey bilinen, bilinenlerin ise \u2014 kimi zaman terc\u00fcme eksi\u011fi veya hatalar\u0131ndan, kimi zaman orjinal eserlerin okunmamas\u0131ndan \u2014 ya \u00e7ok eksik ya da d\u00fcped\u00fcz yanl\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu, d\u00fcnyaya bamba\u015fka g\u00f6zl\u00fcklerle bakan bu \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 kuram\u0131n biraz olsun \u201chakk\u0131n\u0131\u201d iade etmektir. Ancak bu i\u015fi \u201ctarihin tozlu sayfalar\u0131ndan bir kuram\u0131n anlat\u0131m\u0131\u201d gibi g\u00f6rmek yanl\u0131\u015f olur. Bu \u201ctarihe g\u00f6m\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc\u201d s\u00f6ylenen kuram ilgin\u00e7 bir \u015fekilde asl\u0131nda hi\u00e7bir zaman tam olarak g\u00f6m\u00fclemedi. Hele ki sofistikasyonu giderek artan matematiksel modellerin geli\u015fi, n\u00f6robilim ve bilgisayar bilimlerindeki \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 geli\u015fmeler bir anda Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131 sanki yeniden \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n oda\u011f\u0131na yerle\u015ftirdi gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyor. Bunu yak\u0131n tarihli yay\u0131nlardan g\u00f6rmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Bug\u00fcn 2010\u20132020 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 kapsayarak Google Akademik\u2019te \u201cgestalt theory\u201d39 anahtar s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ile arama yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda 65 bin \u00fcst\u00fc sonu\u00e7 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor. Bunlar\u0131n aras\u0131nda, \u00f6rne\u011fin, daha ilk arama sayfas\u0131nda g\u00f6ze \u00e7arpan 2017 tarihinde Frontiers dergisinde \u00e7\u0131kan \u201cGestalt Theory Rearranged: Back to Wertheimer\u201d isimli makaledir (Guberman, 2017). Kuram\u0131n parmak bast\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7ok can al\u0131c\u0131 meseleler var ve \u00f6yle g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyor ki 21\u2019nci y\u00fczy\u0131lda, olaylar\u0131 daha karma\u015f\u0131k dinamik sistemler \u00fczerinden inceleyebilen bir bak\u0131\u015fa ihtiya\u00e7 duyulacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Makaleyi bitirirken \u00f6zellikle birincil kaynak okumalar\u0131n beni bekledi\u011fimin \u00f6tesinde \u015fa\u015f\u0131rtt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtmek isterim. San\u0131r\u0131m en \u015fa\u015f\u0131rtan boyutu, kuram\u0131n kurucular\u0131n\u0131n sordu\u011fu sorular\u0131n h\u00e2l\u00e2 \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli, hatta \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 sorular olmas\u0131 ve getirdikleri genel bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n psikolojinin \u015fu anki birbirinden kopuk, binbir par\u00e7aya b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f halini toparlayacak tek kuram olabilece\u011fini hissettirmesidir. Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131, bir \u00f6nceki y\u00fczy\u0131lda belki de zaman\u0131na g\u00f6re erken do\u011fan, belki de o d\u00f6nemin, sanat\u0131, bilimi ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyi imha eden fa\u015fizm ikliminde, ye\u015fermesi gerekti\u011fi entelekt\u00fcel co\u011frafyas\u0131ndan kopar\u0131lmas\u0131 nedeniyle akamete u\u011frayan, u\u011frat\u0131lan bir kuram oldu. Ancak haz\u0131r bu bak\u0131\u015f varken ve \u00f6ne att\u0131klar\u0131 ve h\u00e2len cevaps\u0131z kalan sorular\u0131 da ortada dururken onu tekrar ve daha iyi anlayarak \u00f6z\u00fcmsemek neden olmas\u0131n? Kuram\u0131n bellek ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme alanlar\u0131ndaki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 inceleyecece\u011fimiz ikinci ve \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc makalemizde bu imk\u00e2n\u0131 biraz daha belirginle\u015ftirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015faca\u011f\u0131z.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Notlar<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

13 \u0130talik k\u0131s\u0131mlar Almanca metinde yaz\u0131m \u015fekli i\u00e7inde ima edilen anlam\u0131n T\u00fcrk\u00e7e okur i\u00e7in daha iyi anla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131 amac\u0131yla taraf\u0131mca eklenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

14 Hat\u0131rlatma amac\u0131yla, ampirisizm felsefesini, kuram\u0131n\u0131 kastetti\u011fimizde \u201campirisistik\u201d ifadesini, fark\u0131nda veya de\u011fil o bak\u0131\u015f i\u00e7inde bakan felsefeci olmayanlar\u0131n duru\u015fu i\u00e7in ise \u201campirist\u201d ifadesini kullan\u0131yorum.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

15 E\u015flik: \u00c7ok sesli m\u00fczikte melodiye e\u015flik eden \u201cpartisyon\u201d ki bu ana melodi ile uyumlu ba\u015fka bir melodi, hatta \u00e7okca bir akor dizi olabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

16 Wertheimer \u201cilke\u201d tabirinin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra s\u0131k\u00e7a \u201ckaide\u201d hatta kimi zaman \u201ckanun\u201d tabirini de kullan\u0131r. Ancak hem Wertheimer hem di\u011fer Ge\u015ftalt\u00e7\u0131lar yaz\u0131lar\u0131nda bir alg\u0131n\u0131n nas\u0131l ger\u00e7ekle\u015fece\u011fini belirleyen fakt\u00f6rlerin tek de\u011fil birden fazla oldu\u011funa i\u015faret etti\u011fi i\u00e7in, bu ba\u011flamsall\u0131\u011f\u0131 daha iyi kar\u015f\u0131lamas\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan t\u00fcm makale boyunca \u201cilke\u201d tabirini kullanaca\u011f\u0131m.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

17 \u201cRaum- und Tongestalten\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

18 Bu vurguyu \u00f6zellikle yap\u0131yorum \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc hele ki Amerikan ders kitaplar\u0131nda sanki Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131 yaln\u0131zca tek bir \u00f6rnek g\u00f6sterip tek bir cevap al\u0131p bununla yetinmi\u015fler gibi yanl\u0131\u015f bir izlenim verilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

19 Bu ilke \u0130ngilizcede \u201csimilarity\u201d, T\u00fcrk\u00e7ede \u201cbenzerlik\u201d olarak terc\u00fcme edilmi\u015ftir. Oysa Wertheimer \u201cGleichheit\u201d tabirini kullan\u0131r ve nitekim verdi\u011fi t\u00fcm \u00f6rnekler tam bir ayn\u0131l\u0131k \u00fczerinden kuruludur. Do\u011fal olarak benzer olanlar da gruplan\u0131r ancak ayn\u0131 de\u011fil benzer uyaranlarda, Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131na g\u00f6re \u00e7oklu fakt\u00f6rlerin de etkisiyle bu \u00f6rneklerdeki gibi bariz tekil gruplamalar de\u011fil ki\u015fiden ki\u015fiye de\u011fi\u015febilen farkl\u0131 farkl\u0131 gruplamalar olabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

20 K\u00f6hler\u2019\u0131n tabiriyle \u201cself-distributed\u201d, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki kullan\u0131m\u0131yla \u201cself-organized\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

21 G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcz insan\u0131 bir \u201cH\u201d harfini de g\u00f6rebilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

22 \u0130lgin\u00e7tir, Wertheimer burada asl\u0131nda ayn\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrden gelenler aras\u0131nda da olabilecek bir bakma farkl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret eder. Bu \u00e7ok sonralar\u0131 ilk defa David Navon (1977) taraf\u0131ndan farkedilip sunulur ve b\u00f6ylece b\u00fcy\u00fck bir global-lokal alg\u0131 literat\u00fcr\u00fc do\u011far.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

23 \u201cDo\u011fal halklar\u201d ifadesi, end\u00fcstrile\u015fmi\u015f k\u00fclt\u00fcrden uzak ya\u015fayan halklar i\u00e7in kullan\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

24 Buna dair \u00f6rnekleri, Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131n zihnin bellek, \u00f6\u011frenme ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeyle ilgili \u00f6nermelerini mercek alt\u0131na alaca\u011f\u0131m ikinci makalemde sunaca\u011f\u0131m.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

25 Bu uyaranlarda \u015fekil-zemin ili\u015fkisini belirleyenin renk d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir fakt\u00f6r oldu\u011fundan emin olmak i\u00e7in siyah-beyaz renkleri de\u011fi\u015f toku\u015f edilerek kontrol edilir<\/p>\n\n\n\n

26 G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u201ckarma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k\u201d meselesi hala bili\u015fsel psikolojinin ve bilgisayar bilimlerinin en zorlay\u0131c\u0131 konular\u0131ndan biridir. Karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n nas\u0131l tan\u0131mlanabilece\u011fi ve ne \u015fekilde sistematik olarak manip\u00fcle edilebilece\u011fine dair \u00e7e\u015fitli u\u011fra\u015flar var, bunlar\u0131n kimisi bilgi i\u015fleme kuram\u0131ndan gelir (Shannon, 1948; m\u00fczik i\u00e7in bk. Pearce, 2005). \u015eekil-zemin alg\u0131s\u0131 konusu hala g\u00fcncel ve \u00fcst\u00fcnde \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lan bir konudur (\u00f6rn., Grossberg, 2016; Peterson, 2015).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

27 Kamuflaj olgusunun belki de en \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 resmi, Rock ve Palmer\u2019\u0131n 1990 tarihli \u201cThe Legacy of Gestalt (Ge\u015ftalt\u0131n Miras\u0131)\u201d makalesindeki kapak resmidir<\/p>\n\n\n\n

28 Vitalizm; canl\u0131 varkl\u0131klar\u0131n, onlar\u0131 cans\u0131z varl\u0131klardan ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran, fiziksel olmayan bir \u201cya\u015fam elementi\u201d ta\u015f\u0131y\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 olduklar\u0131n\u0131 ve bu \u00f6zellikleriyle kendilerine has ilkelerle varolduklar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne s\u00fcrer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

29 Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131, daha \u00f6nce de vurguland\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, uyaran\u0131n kendi i\u00e7inde bar\u0131nd\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6nlendirici global etkile\u015fimler yan\u0131 s\u0131ra alg\u0131layanlar\u0131n uyaranla etkile\u015fim bi\u00e7imine da \u00f6nem verir. Bu ikili etkiyi g\u00fczel ortaya koyan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalardan biri Mundy\u2019nin (2014) ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

30 Yak\u0131n zamanl\u0131 iki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, \u015fempanzelerde Jastrow yan\u0131lsamas\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne (Tomonaga, 2015), \u00f6te yandan makak ve kapu\u00e7in maymunlar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclmedi\u011fine i\u015faret eder (Agrillo, Berran, Parrish, 2019). Bu farkl\u0131l\u0131klar Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan sorun te\u015fkil etmez \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc kuram i\u00e7in esas olan, belirli bir alg\u0131 \u015feklinin her zaman ve mutlaka deneyime dayal\u0131 olamayabilece\u011fidir. Bir tavu\u011fun veya bir \u015fempanzenin deneyim ve birikimlerinin insanla e\u015fle\u015fti\u011fi, \u00f6te yandan makak veya kapu\u00e7in maymunuyla e\u015fle\u015fmedi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemek hayli zorlay\u0131c\u0131 olur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

31 \u201cAll parts of the nervous system are connected together and no part of it is probably ever capable of reaction without affecting and being affected by various other parts, and it is a system certainly never absolutely at rest.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

32 Bu Raichle\u2019\u0131n \u201cA Default Mode of Brain Function (Beynin \u2018G\u0131yabi Mod\u2019 \u0130\u015flevi\u201d (2001) bulgusunu da akla getirir, yani somut bir zihinsel aktivitenin yoklu\u011funda dahi beynin bir aktivasyon paterni oldu\u011fu bulgusu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

33 Asl\u0131nda Koffka \u201cdavran\u0131\u015fsal \u00e7evre\u201d tabirini kullan\u0131r ama anlatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fey t\u00fcm\u00fcyle alg\u0131layan, deneyimleyen ve bu fenomenolojinin i\u00e7inden davranan anlam\u0131ndad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

34 Ge\u015ftalt\u2019\u0131n bu bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, uyaran-tepki darl\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7inde hapsolmu\u015f davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 ekol\u00fcn yetersizli\u011fini fark edip uyaran-organizma-tepki denklemini kuran Tolman\u2019\u0131n ufuk a\u00e7\u0131c\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131m\u0131yla da (\u00f6rn., Tolman ve Honzik, 1930; Tolman, 1932) ili\u015fkilendirilebilir ve nitekim hem K\u00f6hler hem Koffka Tolman\u2019dan s\u0131k\u00e7a s\u00f6z eder. Aradaki \u00f6nemli fark, Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131n bununla yetinmeyip Tolman\u2019\u0131n eksik b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 (veya b\u0131rakmak zorunda kald\u0131\u011f\u0131) U-O-T denkleminin ortas\u0131ndaki \u201corganizma\u201d k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 anlamay\u0131 hedeflerine koymalar\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

35 K\u00f6hler\u2019in \u015fempanzelerle yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 bahsini etti\u011fim ikinci makalemde daha ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 anlataca\u011f\u0131m.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

36 Koffka bu k\u0131sma \u201cego\u201d, K\u00f6hler ise \u201ckendi (self)\u201d tabirini kullan\u0131r. K\u00f6hler bu \u201ckendi\u201dnin canl\u0131daki \u201cmek\u00e2n\u0131\u201d \u00fczerine de ilgin\u00e7 fikirler y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcr ve bir \u015fekilde burada da zihin ve bedenin ayr\u0131lmamas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini, tersine bir b\u00fct\u00fcnsellik i\u00e7inde g\u00f6r\u00fclmesi gerekti\u011fini \u00f6ne s\u00fcrer. Bu bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 Damasio\u2019da bulabiliriz (bk. Damasio, 2018).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

37 Gibson Ge\u015ftalt\u00e7\u0131lardan hatta daha radikal bir yerde durur ve do\u011frudan alg\u0131n\u0131n matematiksel incelemesinin ekolojik (yani do\u011fal ortam i\u00e7indeki) alg\u0131y\u0131 anlamak i\u00e7in t\u00fcm\u00fcyle yeterli oldu\u011funu, Ge\u015ftalt\u00e7\u0131lardan farkl\u0131 olarak \u2014 Koffka\u2019n\u0131n tabirlerini kullanacak olursak \u2014 \u201cco\u011frafi \u00e7evre\u201dyle \u201cfenomenal \u00e7evre\u201dnin bire bir \u00f6rt\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, alg\u0131layan canl\u0131n\u0131n tarihsel birikiminin temel bir fark yaratmayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yler. Tabi\u00ee Gibson\u2019\u0131n yaln\u0131zca g\u00f6rsel alg\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, \u00f6te yandan Ge\u015ftalt kuramc\u0131lar\u0131n ise, canl\u0131lar\u0131n her t\u00fcrl\u00fc bili\u015f ve davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 anlamay\u0131 hedefledi\u011fini unutmamak gerek.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

38 K\u00f6hler\u2019in 1921 tarihli bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131, Ge\u015ftalt kuram\u0131n\u0131n bellek ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme \u00fczerine yapt\u0131klar\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 inceleyece\u011fim ikinci Ge\u015ftalt makalemde daha ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 sunaca\u011f\u0131m.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

39 Arama yaln\u0131zca \u201cGestalt\u201d olarak yap\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda asl\u0131nda kuram\u0131n temel okumalar\u0131 \u00fczerinden in\u015fa olmam\u0131\u015f, daha \u00e7ok kuram\u0131n \u201czahiri\u201d kavram\u0131n\u0131 temel al\u0131p olu\u015fturulmu\u015f Ge\u015ftalt terapisiyle ilgili makaleler \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r. \u201cGestalt theory\u201d dendi\u011finde ise \u00e7ok a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak kuramla daha do\u011frudan ili\u015fkilenen makaleler listeleniyor<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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