{"id":1670,"date":"2020-09-22T15:00:45","date_gmt":"2020-09-22T15:00:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/?post_type=blog_content&p=1670"},"modified":"2025-08-13T20:43:45","modified_gmt":"2025-08-13T20:43:45","slug":"hayvan-bilisi-kognitif-vikimaraton","status":"publish","type":"blog_content","link":"https:\/\/cog-ist.com\/en\/blog_content\/hayvan-bilisi-kognitif-vikimaraton\/","title":{"rendered":"Hayvan Bili\u015fi \u2014 Kognitif VikiMaraton"},"content":{"rendered":"

Bu d\u00f6k\u00fcman 2 Eyl\u00fcl 2020 \u2018de CogIST olarak Vikipedi T\u00fcrkiye\u2019de ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdi\u011fimiz katk\u0131lar\u0131n bir ar\u015fivi niteli\u011findedir. Vikipedideki maddeler s\u0131kl\u0131kla de\u011fi\u015ftirilebildi\u011fi i\u00e7in, bu katk\u0131lar\u0131n kendi pay\u0131m\u0131za d\u00fc\u015fen k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131 belgelemek ve ar\u015fivlemek gere\u011fi duyduk. Bu maddeye <\/em>Vikipedi\u2019de<\/em><\/a> de eri\u015febilirsiniz. T\u00fcm Kognitif VikiMaraton detaylar\u0131na ise <\/em>buradan<\/em><\/a> ula\u015fabilirsiniz.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayvan bili\u015fi, insan-olmayan hayvanlar\u0131n zihinsel kapasitelerini kapsayan bir aland\u0131r. Bu alanda kullan\u0131lan hayvan ko\u015fulland\u0131rma ve \u00f6\u011frenim \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131, kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 psikolojiden geli\u015ftirilmi\u015ftir. Ayn\u0131 zamanda etoloji, davran\u0131\u015fsal ekoloji ve evrimsel psikolojinin etkisinde kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; bazen bu alandan bili\u015fsel etoloji ad\u0131yla da bahsedilir. Hayvan zekas\u0131<\/em> terimiyle ili\u015fkilendirilen pek \u00e7ok davran\u0131\u015f ayn\u0131 zamanda hayvan bili\u015finin de kapsam\u0131ndad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, hayvan bili\u015fini memeliler (\u00f6zellikle primatlar, deniz memelileri, filler, k\u00f6pekler, kediler, domuzlar, atlar, s\u0131\u011f\u0131rlar, rakunlar ve kemirgenler), ku\u015flar (papa\u011fanlar, k\u00fcmes hayvanlar\u0131, kargagiller ve g\u00fcvercinleri i\u00e7ermektedir), s\u00fcr\u00fcngenler (kertenkeleler, y\u0131lanlar ve kaplumba\u011falar), bal\u0131klar ve omurgas\u0131zlarda (kafadanbacakl\u0131lar, \u00f6r\u00fcmcekler ve b\u00f6cekleri i\u00e7ermektedir) incelemi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tarih\u00e7e<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

\u0130lk \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131mlar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130nsan-olmayan hayvanlar\u0131n zihin ve davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131, insanlar\u0131n hayal g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc as\u0131rlar boyu cezbetmi\u015ftir. Descartes gibi pek \u00e7ok yazar, hayvan zihninin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ya da yoklu\u011fu hakk\u0131nda tahminlerde bulundular. Bu tahminler, hen\u00fcz modern bilim ve deneyler yokken hayvan davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6zlemlenmesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Bunun ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 nihai nokta, hayvan zekas\u0131na dair \u00e7ok say\u0131da hipotez \u00fcretilmesi olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ezop Masallar\u0131\u2019ndan Karga ile S\u00fcrahi\u2019de, bir karga s\u00fcrahideki suyu i\u00e7ebilene dek i\u00e7ini ta\u015fla doldurur. Bu, kargagillerin suyun hareketleri hakk\u0131ndaki anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6receli olarak isabetli bir anlat\u0131m\u0131d\u0131r. Romal\u0131 naturalist Ya\u015fl\u0131 Plinius, bu hikayenin ger\u00e7ek hayattaki kargagillerin davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131tt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yleyen ilk ki\u015fiydi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Aristoteles, biyolojisinde, bir hayvan\u0131n duyu organlar\u0131n\u0131n, ald\u0131klar\u0131 bilgiyi karar almaya muktedir bir organa iletti\u011fi, sonra bunlar\u0131n bir motor organa ba\u011fland\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir nedensellik zinciri hipotezi \u00f6ne s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Aristoteles\u2019in kardiyosentrisizmine (bili\u015fin kalpte olu\u015ftu\u011fu y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki yanl\u0131\u015f inan\u00e7) ra\u011fmen, bu yakla\u015f\u0131m baz\u0131 modern bilgi i\u015flem anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131na yakla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130lk \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131mlar illa kesin veya isabetli olmak zorunda de\u011fildi. Yine de, hayvanlar\u0131n mental kabiliyetlerine duyulan ilgi ve bu kabiliyetlerin insanlar\u0131nkiyle k\u0131yas\u0131, Linnaeus\u2019la ba\u015flayarak insan\u0131n primat olarak s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ile ve kar\u0131nca davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 inceleyen erken d\u00f6nemlerinde mirmekolojinin etkisiyle artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Morgan Kanunu<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yarat\u0131c\u0131s\u0131, 19. y\u00fcyz\u0131lda ya\u015fam\u0131\u015f \u0130ngiliz psikolog C. Lloyd Morgan\u2019dan olan Morgan Kanunu, kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131rmal\u0131 (hayvan) psikolojisinin kurucu kaidelerinden biridir. Morgan Kanunu, geli\u015fmi\u015f haliyle \u015funu s\u00f6ylemektedir:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bir hayvan\u0131n aktivitesinin, psikolojik evrim ve geli\u015fimin daha alt kademeleri kullan\u0131larak makul bir bi\u00e7imde yorumlanabildi\u011fi hi\u00e7bir durumda, bu aktivite daha \u00fcst psikolojik i\u015flemler ba\u011flam\u0131nda yorumlanmamal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bir di\u011fer deyi\u015fle, Morgan\u2019a g\u00f6re hayvan davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131na antropomorfik \u015fekilde yakla\u015fmak yan\u0131lg\u0131d\u0131r; insanlar davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 rasyonel, ereksel, ya da duygusal vb. olarak sadece, e\u011fer davran\u0131\u015flar bu \u00f6zelliklerin atfedilmedi\u011fi daha ilkel ya\u015fam formlar\u0131yla ili\u015fkili \u015fekilde a\u00e7\u0131klanam\u0131yorsa de\u011ferlendirmelidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Anekdottan laboratuvara<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayvan zekas\u0131 hakk\u0131ndaki spek\u00fclasyonlar, sonradan Darwin\u2019in b\u00fcy\u00fck oranda anekdota dayal\u0131 yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131 bilimin ele\u011finden ge\u00e7emediyse de, onun insanlar\u0131 ve hayvanlar\u0131 ayn\u0131 s\u00fcrecin par\u00e7alar\u0131 halinde ele almas\u0131yla yerini kademeli olarak bilimsel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalara b\u0131rakt\u0131. Bu y\u00f6ntem daha sonradan, anti-Darwinizm kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda temel bir yeri olan \u00f6\u011frencisi George J. Romanes taraf\u0131ndan geni\u015fletilmi\u015ftir. Buna ra\u011fmen Romanes, en \u00e7ok \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131ndaki iki b\u00fcy\u00fck kusurla bilinir: Anekdota dayal\u0131 g\u00f6zlemler ve k\u00f6kl\u00fc antropomorfizmi. Bahsi ge\u00e7en yakla\u015f\u0131mdan memnun kalmayan E. L. Thorndike, hayvan davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 nesnel bir bi\u00e7imde incelemek i\u00e7in laboratuvar ortam\u0131na ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131. Thorndike\u2019\u0131n kediler, k\u00f6pekler ve civcivlerin bulmaca kutular\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015flar\u0131yla ilgili dikkatli g\u00f6zlemleri, bu davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 g\u00f6zlemleyen tecr\u00fcbesiz bir insana zeki davran\u0131\u015flar gibi gelen davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n asl\u0131nda olduk\u00e7a basit \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131mlara dayal\u0131 olabilece\u011fi sonucuna varmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Morgan Kanunu\u2019nu kullanan Thorndike\u2019a g\u00f6re hayvan ak\u0131l y\u00fcr\u00fctmesi, i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcs\u00fc ya da bilinci y\u00f6n\u00fcnde yap\u0131lan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131mlar gereksiz ve yan\u0131lt\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r. Thorndike\u2019la yak\u0131n zamanlarda I. P. Pavlov hayvanlarda ko\u015fulland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f reflekslerle ilgili ufuk a\u00e7\u0131c\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na ba\u015flad\u0131. Pavlov, k\u00f6pekgillerin mental s\u00fcre\u00e7lerine dair \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131mlar\u0131 \u00e7abucak terk etti; ona g\u00f6re bu t\u00fcr giri\u015fimler sadece ihtilafa ve kafa kar\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131na yol a\u00e7\u0131yordu. Yine de g\u00f6zlemlerini a\u00e7\u0131klayabilecek fizyolojik s\u00fcre\u00e7ler hakk\u0131nda \u00f6nermeler ortaya koymaya a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 yar\u0131m as\u0131r<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Thorndike, Pavlov ve a\u00e7\u0131ks\u00f6zl\u00fc davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 John B. Watson\u2019\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 hayvan davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131na yar\u0131m as\u0131rdan uzun bir s\u00fcre y\u00f6n verdi. Bu s\u00fcre boyunca basit \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131msall\u0131\u011f\u0131 anlama konusunda kaydade\u011fer ilerlemeler oldu; bilhassa, 1930 civar\u0131nda Thorndike\u2019\u0131n ara\u00e7sal (ya da edimsel) ko\u015fulland\u0131rmas\u0131 ve Pavlov\u2019un klasik (ya da Pavlovian) ko\u015fulland\u0131rmas\u0131 \u00f6nce Miller ve Kanorski, sonras\u0131nda da B. F. Skinner taraf\u0131ndan a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131\u011fa kavu\u015fturuldu. Ko\u015fulland\u0131rma \u00fcst\u00fcne pek \u00e7ok deney yap\u0131lmaya devam edildi; bu deneyler baz\u0131 karma\u015f\u0131k teorilere kaynakl\u0131k etti, ama bunlarda etkisi olan zihinsel s\u00fcre\u00e7ler hakk\u0131nda neredeyse hi\u00e7 kaynak sunmad\u0131. Zihinsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 kontrol etti\u011fi fikrini en bariz \u015fekilde reddeden radikal davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 Skinner\u2019d\u0131. Bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f, mental imgeler gibi \u201c\u00f6zel olaylar\u201d dahil olacak \u015fekilde, davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 hayvan ya da insan \u00fcst\u00fcnde etkisi olan \u00e7evresel olaylara dayand\u0131r\u0131larak a\u00e7\u0131klamay\u0131 ama\u00e7lamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ara\u015ft\u0131rmalarda 1960 \u00f6ncesinde bask\u0131n olan davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 y\u00f6nelime ra\u011fmen, hayvanlar\u0131n zihinsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinin reddi evrensel de\u011fildi. Wolfgang K\u00f6hler ve anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc \u015fempanzeleri ile, ileride yap\u0131lacak olan hem hayvanlar hem de insanlardaki bili\u015fsel ara\u015ft\u0131rmalara belirgin katk\u0131lar\u0131 olan bili\u015fsel haritaland\u0131rmas\u0131yla \u00fcnl\u00fc Edward Tolman gibi etkili istisnalar da bulunuyordu.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bili\u015fsel devrim<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

1960\u2019a yak\u0131n y\u0131llarda ba\u015flayarak, insanlar hakk\u0131ndaki ara\u015ft\u0131rmalarda bir \u201cbili\u015fsel devrim\u201d kademeli olarak hayvan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131nda da benzeri bir de\u011fi\u015fimi tetikledi. Do\u011frudan g\u00f6zlemlenemeyen s\u00fcre\u00e7ler hakk\u0131ndaki \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131mlar \u00f6nce kabullenilmeye, sonra da ola\u011fanla\u015fmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel de\u011fi\u015fimin \u00f6nemli savunucular\u0131ndan biri Donald O. Hebb\u2019di. Hebb, \u201czihin\u201din karma\u015f\u0131k davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 kontrol eden kafa i\u00e7indeki s\u00fcre\u00e7lere verilen bir isimden ibaret oldu\u011funu ve bu s\u00fcre\u00e7leri davran\u0131\u015flardan \u00e7\u0131karsaman\u0131n hem m\u00fcmk\u00fcn hem de zorunlu oldu\u011funu savundu. Hayvanlar art\u0131k \u201cbili\u015fsel karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n pek \u00e7ok seviyesinde bilgiyi edinen, depolayan, geri \u00e7a\u011f\u0131ran ve i\u00e7sel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinde i\u015fleyen ereksel birimler\u201d olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. Bu metnin kalan\u0131, bu ufuk a\u00e7an perspektif de\u011fi\u015fiminden sonra ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan ya da b\u00fcy\u00fck ilerlemeler kaydedilen pek \u00e7ok ara\u015ft\u0131rma alan\u0131na ve b\u00fcy\u00fck dikkat \u00e7eken pek \u00e7ok teorik ve deneysel bulguya de\u011finmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Y\u00f6ntemler<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Hayvan bili\u015fi ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131nda son 50 y\u0131lda \u00e7\u0131kan ivmelenme, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma yap\u0131lan t\u00fcr \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi ve kullan\u0131lan y\u00f6ntemlerde h\u0131zl\u0131 art\u0131\u015flara yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Primatlar ve deniz memelileri gibi b\u00fcy\u00fck beyinli hayvanlar\u0131n g\u00f6ze \u00e7arpan davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 \u00f6zellikle dikkat \u00e7ekse de, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u2014 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck t\u00fcm hayvanlar (ku\u015flar, bal\u0131klar, kar\u0131ncalar, ar\u0131lar vd.) laboratuvar ortam\u0131nda ya da dikatle kontrol edilen saha \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda incelendiler. Laboratuvarda hayvanlar d\u00fczeneklerdeki kolu kullanmakta, ipleri \u00e7ekmekte, yemek i\u00e7in kazmakta, su labirentlerinde y\u00fczmekte, ya da ayr\u0131msama, dikkat, bellek ve kategorizasyon deneylerinde bilgi edinilebilmesi i\u00e7in bilgisayar ekran\u0131nda g\u00f6rsellere yan\u0131tlar vermektedir. Dikkatli saha \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 yemek zulalar\u0131 i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lan belle\u011fi, y\u0131ld\u0131zlarla y\u00f6n bulmay\u0131, ileti\u015fimi, alet kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131, t\u00fcrde\u015fli\u011fi ve ba\u015fka pek \u00e7ok \u015feyi ke\u015ffetmektedir. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar s\u0131k s\u0131k do\u011fal ortam\u0131ndaki hayvanlara odaklanmakta ve t\u00fcrlerin \u00e7o\u011falma ve hayatta kalmaya yarad\u0131\u011f\u0131 varsay\u0131lan davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fmaktad\u0131r. Bu geli\u015fmeler etoloji ve davran\u0131\u015fsal ekoloji gibi ilgili alanlardan gelen ortak verilerde art\u0131\u015f\u0131 yans\u0131tmaktad\u0131r. Davran\u0131\u015fsal n\u00f6robilimin katk\u0131lar\u0131, baz\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karsanm\u0131\u015f zihinsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin fizyolojik alt katmanlar\u0131n\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131\u011fa kavu\u015fturulmas\u0131 \u015feklindedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, insan \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n\u0131n farkl\u0131 geli\u015fim a\u015famalar\u0131nda kavrad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinen kabiliyetleri ele al\u0131p, belli t\u00fcrlerin bunlardan hangilerini yapabildi\u011fini inceleyerek Piagetyen metodolojiyi etkili bir bi\u00e7imde kullanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Di\u011ferleri hayvan refah\u0131 ve evcil t\u00fcrlerin bak\u0131m\u0131yla ilgili endi\u015felerden ilham alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; \u00f6rne\u011fin Temple Grandin\u2019in e\u015fsiz uzmanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, insanlar ve di\u011fer hayvanlar aras\u0131ndaki benzerlikleri vurgulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 hayvan refah\u0131 ve \u00e7iftlik hayvanlar\u0131n\u0131n etik tedavisidir. Metodolojik bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan b\u00f6ylesi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalardaki en b\u00fcy\u00fck risklerden biri antropomorfizmdir, yani ki\u015finin hayvan davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 insan hisleri, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleri ve motivasyonlar\u0131 \u015feklinde yorumlama e\u011filimi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130nsan ve insan olmayan hayvanlar\u0131n bili\u015fi pek \u00e7ok ortak noktaya sahiptir ve bu durum, a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da \u00f6zetlenen \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalara da yans\u0131m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; burada bulunan pek \u00e7ok ba\u015fl\u0131\u011fa ayn\u0131 zamanda bir insan bili\u015fi yaz\u0131s\u0131nda da rastlanabilir. Elbette bu ikisi \u00fcst\u00fcne yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar ayn\u0131 zamanda olduk\u00e7a \u00f6nemli bi\u00e7imlerde farkl\u0131l\u0131k da g\u00f6stermektedir. Bilindi\u011fi \u00fczere insanlarla yap\u0131lan pek \u00e7ok ara\u015ft\u0131rma ya dili i\u00e7ermekte, ya da dil \u00fczerinedir; hayvan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131 ise ya do\u011frudan ya da dolayl\u0131 olarak do\u011fal ortamda hayatta kalmakta \u00f6nemli davran\u0131\u015flara ili\u015fkindir. A\u015fa\u011f\u0131da hayvan bili\u015fi ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131ndaki baz\u0131 ba\u015fl\u0131ca alanlar\u0131n \u00f6zetleri yer almaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alg\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayvanlar \u00e7evrelerini g\u00f6zleri, kulaklar\u0131 ve di\u011fer duyu organlar\u0131ndan gelen bilgiyi i\u015fleyerek alg\u0131lar. Alg\u0131sal s\u00fcre\u00e7ler pek \u00e7ok t\u00fcrde insanlardakine benzer sonu\u00e7larla \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu kadar ilgin\u00e7 bir ba\u015fka \u015fey ise, insanlar\u0131nkinden farkl\u0131 ya da onun \u00f6tesindeki alg\u0131sal s\u00fcre\u00e7lerdir; bunlara yarasa ve yunuslardaki ekolokasyon, bal\u0131klar\u0131n deri resept\u00f6rleriyle hareket sezimi ve baz\u0131 ku\u015flarda bulunan ola\u011fand\u0131\u015f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f keskinli\u011fi, hareket duyarl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve ultraviyole \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6rme kabiliyeti \u00f6rnektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dikkat<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

D\u00fcnyada herhangi bir anda olan \u015feylerin \u00e7o\u011fu, o esnadaki davran\u0131\u015flarla alakas\u0131zd\u0131r. Dikkat, alakal\u0131 bilgileri se\u00e7ip alakas\u0131z olanlar\u0131 bask\u0131layan ve duruma g\u00f6re bunlar aras\u0131nda de\u011fi\u015fiklik yapan bir zihinsel s\u00fcrece tekab\u00fcl eder. Genellikle se\u00e7me i\u015flemi, alakal\u0131 bilginin ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6ncesinde ayarl\u0131d\u0131r; bu t\u00fcr beklentiler anahtar uyaranlar ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bunlar\u0131n h\u0131zl\u0131ca se\u00e7ilmesini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131lar. Dikkat ve beklentilerin insan olmayan hayvanlar\u0131n davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131na etkisi zengince ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n bir\u00e7o\u011fu dikkatin ku\u015flar, memeliler ve s\u00fcr\u00fcngenlerde, insanlardakiyle neredeyse ayn\u0131 yolla \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Se\u00e7ici \u00f6\u011frenme<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Beyaza kar\u015f\u0131 siyah gibi iki uyaran aras\u0131nda ayr\u0131m yapmaya e\u011fitilen hayvanlar\u0131n, \u201cparlakl\u0131k boyutuna\u201d dikkat etti\u011fi s\u00f6ylenebilir; ancak bu, bu boyutun di\u011ferlerinin \u00f6n\u00fcne \u00e7\u0131kan bir tercih olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 hakk\u0131nda bize pek az \u015fey sunmaktad\u0131r. Daha a\u00e7\u0131klay\u0131c\u0131 olan, hayvanlar\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli farkl\u0131 alternatifler aras\u0131ndan se\u00e7im yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 deneylerdir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, bir\u00e7ok \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma hayvanlar\u0131n renk ayr\u0131m\u0131nda (\u00f6r. mavi ile ye\u015fil) g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi performans\u0131n, ba\u015fka bir renk ayr\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011frendikten sonra (\u00f6r. k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 ile turuncu), X ile O \u015fekillerinin ayr\u0131m\u0131nda e\u011fitildikten sonrakine nazaran daha iyi oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir. Tersi etki ise bi\u00e7imler \u00fcst\u00fcne e\u011fitildikten sonra ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r. Bundan dolay\u0131, \u00f6ncesinde ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 e\u011fitim hayvan\u0131n hangi boyut, renk ya da bi\u00e7ime dikkat edece\u011fini etkiliyor gibi durmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Di\u011fer deneyler g\u00f6stermektedir ki, hayvanlar \u00e7evrenin bir \u00f6zelli\u011fine yan\u0131t vermeyi \u00f6\u011frendikten sonra di\u011fer \u00f6zelliklere kar\u015f\u0131 g\u00f6sterdikleri yan\u0131tlama duyarl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 azalmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin \u201cbloklamada\u201d, bir hayvan \u00f6d\u00fcl ya da ceza ile bir uyarana (\u201cA\u201d) yan\u0131t vermeye ko\u015fulland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Hayvan istikrarl\u0131 bir \u015fekilde A\u2019ya yan\u0131t verdikten sonra ek e\u011fitim denemelerinde ikinci bir uyaran (\u201cB\u201d) A\u2019ya e\u015flik eder. Sonras\u0131nda B uyaran\u0131yla yap\u0131lan denemeler yaln\u0131z ba\u015f\u0131na \u00e7ok az yan\u0131t olu\u015fturur, bu durum B\u2019ye dair \u00f6\u011frenimin A\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nceki \u00f6\u011frenimi nedeniyle bloke oldu\u011funu i\u015faret etmektedir. Bu sonu\u00e7, uyaranlar\u0131n yeni bir bilgi sa\u011flamad\u0131klar\u0131 zaman ihmal edildikleri hipotezini desteklemektedir. Bu y\u00fczden bahsi ge\u00e7en deneyde hayvan B\u2019ye dikkat veremedi, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc B uyaran\u0131 A\u2019yla birlikte ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda verdi\u011fine ek bir bilgi sunmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. E\u011fer bu yorumlama do\u011fruysa dikkatsal s\u00fcrece dair \u00f6nemli bir anlay\u0131\u015f sunmaktad\u0131r, ama bu \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131m hen\u00fcz kesinle\u015fmi\u015f de\u011fildir; zira bloklama ve bir\u00e7ok ilgili olgu, dikkatten s\u00f6z edilmeyen ko\u015fullama modelleriyle de a\u00e7\u0131klanabilmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

B\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f dikkat<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dikkat s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 bir kayna\u011fa sahiptir ve bir \u201cya hep ya hi\u00e7\u201d yan\u0131t\u0131 de\u011fildir: \u00e7evrenin bir \u00f6zelli\u011fine daha fazla dikkat ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman, di\u011ferlerine d\u00fc\u015fen pay azal\u0131r. Hayvanlarla yap\u0131lan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n birtak\u0131m \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma bunun \u00fcst\u00fcnedir. Bir deneyde, g\u00fcvercinlere sinyal sesiyle e\u015fzamanl\u0131 olarak \u0131\u015f\u0131k verildi. G\u00fcvercinler, yaln\u0131zca iki uyaran\u0131n do\u011fru kombinasyonunu (\u00f6r. y\u00fcksek frekansl\u0131 bir sinyal ile sar\u0131 \u0131\u015f\u0131k) se\u00e7tiklerinde \u00f6d\u00fcllendirildiler. Ku\u015flar bu g\u00f6revde iyi bir performans g\u00f6sterdi ve bu muhtemelen dikkatlerini iki uyarana b\u00f6lmelerinden kaynaklan\u0131yordu. Yaln\u0131zca bir uyaran de\u011fi\u015fti\u011fi ve di\u011feri \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilen de\u011ferinde kald\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, de\u011fi\u015fken uyaranlara kar\u015f\u0131 yan\u0131tlar geli\u015fti ancak alternatif uyaranlar\u0131n ayr\u0131msanmas\u0131 daha k\u00f6t\u00fc hale geldi. Bu sonu\u00e7lar, dikkatin gelen uyaranlara daha fazla ya da daha az odaklanabilen s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 bir kayna\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011fu fikriyle tutarl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

G\u00f6rsel arama ve dikkat \u00f6nceleme<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yukar\u0131da belirtildi\u011fi \u00fczere, dikkatin i\u015flevi hayvan i\u00e7in \u00f6zel bir kullan\u0131m\u0131 olan bilgiyi se\u00e7mektir. G\u00f6rsel arama karakteristik olarak bu t\u00fcr se\u00e7imleri gerektirir ve arama g\u00f6revleri hem insanlarda hem hayvanlarda dikkate ba\u011fl\u0131 se\u00e7imin karakteristikleri ve onu kontrol eden fakt\u00f6rleri saptamakta geni\u015f bir bi\u00e7imde kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

G\u00f6rsel arama \u00fczerine deneysel ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131na ilk olarak Luc Tinbergen\u2019in saha g\u00f6zlemleri (1960) \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fck etti. Tinbergen ku\u015flar\u0131n avlayacaklar\u0131 b\u00f6cekleri belirlemede se\u00e7ici oldu\u011funu g\u00f6zlemledi. \u00d6rne\u011fin, ku\u015flar ba\u015fka t\u00fcrler de olsa dahi, tekrar tekrar ayn\u0131 t\u00fcr b\u00f6ce\u011fi yakalamaya e\u011filimliydi. Tinbergen bu av se\u00e7iminin, bir b\u00f6cek t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn saptanmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131rken di\u011fer t\u00fcrlerin saptanmas\u0131n\u0131 bask\u0131layan bir dikkatsel \u00f6nyarg\u0131dan kaynakland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrd\u00fc. Genel olarak bu \u201cdikkat \u00f6nceleme\u201dnin dikkat verilen nesnenin bir mental temsilinin \u00f6nceden etkin olmas\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenir. Tinbergen bu mental temsili \u201carama imgesi\u201d olarak adland\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tinbergen\u2019in \u00f6nceleme hakk\u0131ndaki saha g\u00f6zlemleri \u00e7e\u015fitli deneylerle desteklenmi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin Pietrewicz ve Kamil (1977, 1979) mavi alakargalara \u00fcst\u00fcnde A t\u00fcr\u00fc g\u00fcve olan, B t\u00fcr\u00fc g\u00fcve olan, ya da hi\u00e7 g\u00fcve olmayan a\u011fa\u00e7 g\u00f6vdesi resimleri g\u00f6sterdi. Ku\u015flar, g\u00fcve olan resimleri gagalad\u0131klar\u0131nda \u00f6d\u00fcllendirildiler. Kritik bir nokta, belli bir g\u00fcve t\u00fcr\u00fcyle yap\u0131lan tekrarl\u0131 denemelerde (\u00f6r. A, A, A,\u2026) saptama olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n, denemelerin kar\u0131\u015f\u0131k yap\u0131lmas\u0131ndan sonraki (\u00f6r. A, B, B, A, B, A, A,\u2026) olas\u0131l\u0131klardan daha y\u00fcksek olmas\u0131yd\u0131. Bu sonu\u00e7lar bir kez daha bir nesneyle ard\u0131\u015f\u0131k olarak kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fman\u0131n bu nesneye dikkatsel bir yatk\u0131nl\u0131k geli\u015ftirdi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Aramada dikkat \u00f6ncelemesi olu\u015fturman\u0131n bir di\u011fer yolu, hedefle ili\u015fkilendirilmi\u015f bir ileri sinyal sa\u011flamakt\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, e\u011fer bir ki\u015fi \u00f6t\u00fcc\u00fc \u00f6t\u00fc\u015f\u00fc duyarsa, bir \u00e7al\u0131da \u00f6t\u00fcc\u00fc ser\u00e7e saptamaya daha yatk\u0131n hale gelebilir. Bu etkiyi hayvan deneklerde ortaya koyan deneyler bulunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yine ba\u015fka deneyler g\u00f6rsel araman\u0131n h\u0131z ve kesinli\u011fini etkileyen uyaran fakt\u00f6rlerinin do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffetmi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, tek bir hedefi bulmak i\u00e7in gereken s\u00fcre, g\u00f6rsel alandaki \u015feylerin say\u0131s\u0131yla y\u00fckselmektedir. Tepki s\u00fcresindeki bu art\u0131\u015f e\u011fer dikkat da\u011f\u0131t\u0131c\u0131lar hedefe benzerse daha keskinle\u015firken, farkl\u0131ysa daha hafif seyretmektedir. E\u011fer dikkat da\u011f\u0131t\u0131c\u0131lar hedeften bi\u00e7im ve renk olarak \u00e7ok farkl\u0131ysa s\u00fcre art\u0131\u015f\u0131 hi\u00e7 g\u00f6r\u00fclmeyebilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Konseptler ve kategoriler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Temel fakat tan\u0131mlamas\u0131 zor bir \u015fey olarak \u201ckonsept\u201din konsepti, hen\u00fcz psikolojik \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n odak noktas\u0131 olmadan y\u00fczlerce y\u0131l \u00f6nce filozoflarca tart\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131yordu. Konseptler insanlar ve hayvanlar\u0131n d\u00fcnyay\u0131 i\u015flevsel gruplar halinde organize etmesini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131lar; bu gruplar alg\u0131sal anlamda benzer nesneler ve olaylardan, ortak i\u015fleve sahip farkl\u0131 \u015feylerden, ya da analojiler gibi ili\u015fkiler aras\u0131 ili\u015fkilerle \u015fekillendirilmi\u015f olabilir. Bu konulardaki daha ileri tart\u0131\u015fmalar pek \u00e7ok referansla birlikte Shettleworth (2010), Wasserman ve Zentall (2006) ve Zentall ve ark. (2008) makalelerinde bulunabilir. Sonuncusu, internette \u00fccretsiz eri\u015fime a\u00e7\u0131k bulunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Y\u00f6ntemler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayvan konseptleri \u00fczerine \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7e\u015fitliliklerle kolayca olu\u015fturulan ve sunulan g\u00f6rsel uyaranlarla yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r, ancak sesli ve di\u011fer uyaranlar da kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. G\u00fcvercinler m\u00fckemmel g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri ve her zaman g\u00f6rsel hedeflere yan\u0131t vermeye ko\u015fullanm\u0131\u015f olmalar\u0131 nedeniyle \u00e7ok\u00e7a kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r; bununla beraber ba\u015fka ku\u015flar ve birtak\u0131m di\u011fer hayvanlarla da \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tipik bir deneyde, bir ku\u015f ya da ba\u015fka bir hayvan \u00e7ok say\u0131da resmin birer birer g\u00f6sterildi\u011fi bir bilgisayar ekran\u0131yla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yor ve denek kategori i\u00e7inden bir \u015feyi gagalad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ya da ona dokundu\u011fu zaman \u00f6d\u00fcl al\u0131rken, kategori d\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u015feylerde herhangi bir \u00f6d\u00fcl alm\u0131yor. Alternatif olarak, dene\u011fe se\u00e7im yapmas\u0131 i\u00e7in iki ya da daha fazla resim sunuluyor. Pek \u00e7ok deney \u00f6nceden hi\u00e7 g\u00f6r\u00fclmemi\u015f \u015feylerin sunulmas\u0131yla sonlan\u0131yor; bu \u015feylerin ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131, hayvan\u0131n yaln\u0131zca belli ba\u015fl\u0131 uyaran-yan\u0131t ili\u015fkilerini \u00f6\u011frenmekle kalmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steriyor. \u0130lgili bir ba\u015fka y\u00f6ntem, bazen ili\u015fkisel konseptler \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131rken kullan\u0131lan \u00f6rne\u011fe e\u015fle\u015ftirmedir. Bu g\u00f6revde hayvan sadece bir uyaran g\u00f6r\u00fcr ve iki ya da daha fazla alternatif aras\u0131ndan se\u00e7im yapar, biri ilkiyle ayn\u0131d\u0131r; sonras\u0131nda hayvan e\u015fle\u015fen uyaran\u0131 se\u00e7ince \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alg\u0131sal kategoriler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alg\u0131sal kategorizasyonun, bir insan yahut hayvan\u0131n ortak \u00f6zellikler i\u00e7eren bir uyaranlar skalas\u0131na yan\u0131t verirkenkine benzer bir \u015fekilde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00f6ylenir. \u00d6rne\u011fin bir sincap Rex, Shep ya da Trixie\u2019yi g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde a\u011faca t\u0131rman\u0131r; bu, sincab\u0131n her \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcn\u00fc de ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmas\u0131 gereken \u015feyler olarak kategorize etti\u011fini g\u00f6stermektedir. Olaylar\u0131n b\u00f6ylesi gruplara ayr\u0131lmas\u0131, hayatta kalmak i\u00e7in elzemdir. Bir hayvan e\u011fer bir nesne hakk\u0131nda \u00f6\u011frendiklerini (\u00f6r. Rex beni \u0131s\u0131rd\u0131) ayn\u0131 kategorideki yeni olaylara (k\u00f6pekler \u0131s\u0131rabilir) uygulamak istiyorsa onu kategorize etmelidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Do\u011fal kategoriler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pek \u00e7ok hayvan bi\u00e7im ya da renk farklar\u0131n\u0131 alg\u0131layarak nesneleri kolayca s\u0131n\u0131fland\u0131r\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin ar\u0131lar ya da g\u00fcvercinler, e\u011fer \u00f6d\u00fcllendiriliyorsa t\u00fcm k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 bir nesneleri se\u00e7meyi ve \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilmiyorsa t\u00fcm ye\u015fil nesneleri reddetmeyi \u00f6\u011frenebilir. \u00c7ok daha zor g\u00f6r\u00fcnen ise, bir hayvan\u0131n ayn\u0131 gruba ait g\u00f6z\u00fckse de renk ve bi\u00e7imi \u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015fken olan do\u011fal nesneleri kategorize etme kabiliyetidir. Klasik bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmada, Richard J. Herrnstein g\u00fcvercinleri insanlar\u0131n foto\u011fraflardaki varl\u0131klar\u0131 ya da yokluklar\u0131na yan\u0131t verecek \u015fekilde e\u011fitti. Ku\u015flar bi\u00e7im, boyut ve renkteki b\u00fcy\u00fck de\u011fi\u015fikliklere ra\u011fmen, hem insanlar\u0131n oldu\u011fu hem de olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6rsellere bakarak, k\u0131smen ya da tamamen insan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc i\u00e7eren foto\u011fraflar\u0131 gagalamay\u0131 \u00e7abucak \u00f6\u011frendiler. Takip eden \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarda g\u00fcvercinler di\u011fer do\u011fal nesneleri (\u00f6r. a\u011fa\u00e7lar) kategorize ettiler ve e\u011fitim sonras\u0131nda bir \u00f6d\u00fcl olmadan \u00f6nceden g\u00f6rmedikleri foto\u011fraflar\u0131 ay\u0131rabilir hale geldiler. Benzer \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar ku\u015f \u015fark\u0131lar\u0131 gibi do\u011fal ses kategorilerinde de yap\u0131ld\u0131. Bal ar\u0131lar\u0131 (Apis mellifera<\/em>), \u201cyukar\u0131\u201d ve \u201ca\u015fa\u011f\u0131\u201d konseptlerini olu\u015fturabilmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130\u015flevsel ya da \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131\u015f\u0131msal kategoriler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alg\u0131sal olarak alakas\u0131z uyaranlar e\u011fer ortak bir kullan\u0131mlar\u0131 varsa ya da ortak sonu\u00e7lara yol a\u00e7\u0131yorlarsa bir s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n \u00fcyeleri olarak yan\u0131t alabilirler. Vaughan\u2019\u0131n s\u0131kl\u0131kla at\u0131f yap\u0131lan bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 (1988) buna bir \u00f6rnektir. Vaughan, \u00e7ok say\u0131da alakas\u0131z g\u00f6rseli iki rastgele sete, A ve B\u2019ye b\u00f6ld\u00fc. G\u00fcvercinler A setindeki g\u00f6rselleri gagalad\u0131klar\u0131 zaman \u00f6d\u00fcllendirildiler, ancak B setindeki g\u00f6rselleri gagalay\u0131nca \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilmediler. Bu g\u00f6revi makul d\u00fczeyd \u00f6\u011frendikten sonra, sonu\u00e7lar tersine \u00e7evrildi: B\u2019deki nesneler yemek sa\u011flarken, A\u2019dakiler sa\u011flam\u0131yordu. Sonrsa\u0131nda bu durum tekrar ve tekrar tersine d\u00f6nd\u00fcr\u00fclerek devam etti. Vaughan, 20 veya \u00fcst\u00fc de\u011fi\u015fimden sonra \u00f6d\u00fcln bir setteki birka\u00e7 g\u00f6rselle ili\u015fkilendirilmesinin ku\u015flar\u0131n setteki di\u011fer resimlere daha fazla \u00f6d\u00fcl olmadan yan\u0131t vermesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 buldu. Sanki ku\u015flar \u201ce\u011fer set A\u2019daki bu g\u00f6rseller yemek getiriyorsa, set A\u2019n\u0131n di\u011fer g\u00f6rselleri de yemek getirmeli\u201d diye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyordu. Bu, ku\u015flar\u0131n art\u0131k her setteki g\u00f6rselleri i\u015flevsel olarak denk \u015fekilde kategorize etti\u011fi anlam\u0131na gelir. Pek \u00e7ok ba\u015fka prosed\u00fcr de ayn\u0131 benzer \u015fekilde sonu\u00e7land\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131sal ya da soyut kategoriler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Basit bir uyaran\u0131 \u00f6rne\u011fe e\u015fle\u015ftirme g\u00f6revinde (yukar\u0131da anlat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fekliyle) test edildi\u011finde pek \u00e7ok hayvan kolayca \u201ce\u011fer \u00f6rnek k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131ysa k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131ya, ye\u015filse ye\u015file dokun\u201d gibi belli e\u015fya kombinasyonlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenebilirler. Ancak bu, \u201cayn\u0131\u201d ve \u201cfarkl\u0131\u201d genel konseptleri aras\u0131nda ayr\u0131m yapabildiklerini g\u00f6stermemektedir. E\u011fer e\u011fitim sonras\u0131nda bir hayvan \u00f6nceden hi\u00e7 g\u00f6rmedi\u011fi acayip bir \u015feyi ba\u015far\u0131yla e\u015fle\u015ftirirse bu, daha iyi bir kan\u0131t olacakt\u0131r. Maymunlar ve \u015fempanzeler bunu yapmay\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenmektedir; g\u00fcvercinler de e\u011fer pek \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 uyaranla ciddi manada pratik yapmalar\u0131 sa\u011flan\u0131rsa bunu yapmaktad\u0131r. Yine de, ilk olarak \u00f6rnek sunuldu\u011fundan, ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 bir e\u015fle\u015fme hayvan\u0131n konsept olarak \u201cayn\u0131\u201d e\u015fyadan ziyade, basit\u00e7e en yak\u0131n zamanda g\u00f6r\u00fclen \u201ctan\u0131d\u0131k\u201d e\u015fyay\u0131 se\u00e7ti\u011fi anlam\u0131na da gelebilir. Birtak\u0131m \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma bu olas\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131 ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmay\u0131 denemi\u015f ve net olmayan sonu\u00e7lar ortaya koymu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kural \u00f6\u011frenme<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kurallar\u0131n \u00f6\u011frenimi bazen insanlarla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 bir kabiliyet olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcr; ancak baz\u0131 deneyler primatlar ve ba\u015fka hayvanlarda da basit kural \u00f6\u011frenimini kan\u0131tlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kan\u0131tlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu, \u201ckural\u0131n\u201d bir dizi olay\u0131n meydana \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan m\u00fcte\u015fekkil oldu\u011fu sekans \u00f6\u011frenme \u00e7al\u0131\u015famlar\u0131ndan gelmektedir. Kural kullan\u0131m\u0131 e\u011fer hayvan farkl\u0131 olay d\u00fczenlerini ay\u0131rt edebiliyorsa ve bu ayr\u0131m\u0131 ayn\u0131 d\u00fczenle kurulan yeni olaylara da aktarabiliyorsa mevcut demektir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Murphy ve ark. (2008) s\u0131\u00e7anlar\u0131 g\u00f6rsel sekanslar\u0131 ay\u0131rt etmek \u00fczere e\u011fitti. Bir grupta ABA ve BAB \u00f6d\u00fcllendirildi; A \u201cparlak \u0131\u015f\u0131k\u201d ve B \u201clo\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131k\u201d anlam\u0131na geliyordu. Di\u011fer uyaran \u00fc\u00e7lemeleri \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilmedi. S\u0131\u00e7anlar, her ne kadar hem parlak hem de lo\u015f \u0131\u015f\u0131klar denk \u015fekilde \u00f6d\u00fclle ili\u015fkilendirilse bile g\u00f6rsel sekans\u0131 \u00f6\u011frendiler. Daha \u00f6nemlisi, sesli uyaranla yap\u0131lan ikinci bir deneyde s\u0131\u00e7anlar, \u00f6nceden \u00f6\u011frenilmi\u015f d\u00fczenle kurulan bamba\u015fka uyaranlar\u0131n sekanslar\u0131na do\u011fru \u015fekilde yan\u0131t verdi. Benzer sekans \u00f6\u011frenimleri ku\u015flar ve di\u011fer hayvanlarda da g\u00f6sterildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bellek<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130nsan haf\u0131zas\u0131n\u0131 analiz etmek \u00fczere geli\u015ftirilen kategoriler (k\u0131sa d\u00f6nemli bellek, uzun d\u00f6nemli bellek, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma belle\u011fi) hayvan haf\u0131zas\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131na da uyguland\u0131 ve insan k\u0131sa d\u00f6nemli belle\u011finin baz\u0131 karakteristik fenomenleri (\u00f6r. seri pozisyon etkisi) hayvanlarda, \u00f6zellikle de maymunlarda bulundu. Ancak \u00e7o\u011fu ilerleme uzamsal belle\u011fin analizinde kaydedildi; bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n baz\u0131lar\u0131 uzamsal belle\u011fin fizyolojik temellerini ve bu bellekte hippokamp\u00fcs\u00fcn rol\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131\u011fa kavu\u015fturmay\u0131 ama\u00e7larken, di\u011fer \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar Clark f\u0131nd\u0131kk\u0131ranlar\u0131, belli alakargalar, ba\u015ftankaralar ve belli sincaplar gibi ekolojik ni\u015flerinin radikal de\u011fi\u015fimlere ra\u011fmen binlerce zula yerini hat\u0131rlamay\u0131 zorunlu k\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7oklu-s\u00fcr\u00fc hayvanlar\u0131n\u0131n uzamsal belle\u011fini ke\u015ffetmeyi ama\u00e7lam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bellek, Apis mallifera<\/em> aray\u0131c\u0131 bal aralar\u0131nda geni\u015f \u015fekilde incelenmi\u015ftir. Bu ar\u0131lar hem besiyerine spesifik olmayan ge\u00e7ici k\u0131sa-s\u00fcreli \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma belle\u011fi hem de besiyerine spesifik uzun d\u00f6nem referans belle\u011fi kullanmaktad\u0131r. Bir serbest u\u00e7an bal ar\u0131s\u0131nda tek bir \u00f6\u011frenim denemesi g\u00fcnlerce, \u00fc\u00e7 deneme ise ya\u015fam boyu s\u00fcren bellek sa\u011flamaktad\u0131r. Kabuksuz s\u00fcm\u00fckl\u00fcb\u00f6cekler, Limax flavus<\/em>, yakla\u015f\u0131k 1 dakikal\u0131k k\u0131sa d\u00f6nemli belle\u011fe ve yakla\u015f\u0131k 1 ayl\u0131k uzun d\u00f6nemli belle\u011fe sahiptir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Y\u00f6ntemler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130nsanlarda oldu\u011fu \u00fczere ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar \u201c\u00e7al\u0131\u015fma\u201d ya da \u201ck\u0131sa d\u00f6nem\u201d belle\u011fini \u201creferans\u201d ya da uzun d\u00f6nem bellekten ay\u0131rmaktad\u0131r. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fma belle\u011fi deneyleri, yak\u0131n ge\u00e7mi\u015fte (genellikle de birka\u00e7 saniye ya da dakika i\u00e7inde) ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen olaylara dair belle\u011fi de\u011ferlendirmektedir. Referans belle\u011fi deneyleri \u201cbir d\u00fczenek koluna basmak yemek getirir\u201d ya da \u201c\u00e7ocuklar bana f\u0131st\u0131k verir\u201d gibi d\u00fczenlilikleri de\u011ferlendirir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131k<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131k, bellek k\u0131yaslamas\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131sa bir zaman aral\u0131\u011f\u0131ndaki en basit testidir. Test bir hayvan\u0131n bir uyaran ya da olaya kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k yan\u0131t\u0131n\u0131 daha \u00f6nceki bir olaya yan\u0131t\u0131yla k\u0131yaslar. E\u011fer ikinci yan\u0131t ilkinden istikrarl\u0131 bir \u015fekilde farkl\u0131ysa, hayvan ilki hakk\u0131nda bir \u015feyler hat\u0131rl\u0131yor olmal\u0131d\u0131r; bu, motivasyon, duyu hassasiyeti ya da test uyaran\u0131 gibi fakt\u00f6rlerin de\u011fi\u015fmedi\u011fi durumlarda ge\u00e7erlidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Gecikmi\u015f yan\u0131t<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Gecikmi\u015f yan\u0131t \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 hayvanlarda k\u0131sa d\u00f6nemli bellek \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda s\u0131kl\u0131kla kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Hunter\u2019\u0131n (1913) g\u00f6stredi\u011fi \u015fekliyle tipik bir gecikmi\u015f yan\u0131t deneyinde hayvana renkli \u0131\u015f\u0131k gibi bir uyaran verilir ve k\u0131sa bir zaman sonra hayvan\u0131n alternatifler aras\u0131ndan uyaranla e\u015fle\u015fen ya da ona bir \u015fekilde benzeyen \u015feyi se\u00e7er. \u00d6rne\u011fin Hunter\u2019\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda, \u00fc\u00e7 hedef kutusundan birinde k\u0131sa s\u00fcreli\u011fine \u0131\u015f\u0131k belirdi ve hayvan o kutular\u0131 se\u00e7erken \u0131\u015f\u0131kland\u0131r\u0131lan\u0131n arkas\u0131nda yemek buldu. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu baz\u0131 \u201cgecikmi\u015f \u00f6rne\u011fe e\u015fle\u015fme\u201d \u00e7e\u015fitlemeleriyle yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin bu g\u00f6revi i\u00e7eren ilk \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalardan birinde, bir g\u00fcvercine kesintili ya da kesintisiz bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k verildi. Birka\u00e7 saniye sonra g\u00fcvercinin gagalamas\u0131yla konumu de\u011fi\u015fen iki anahtar ayd\u0131nlat\u0131ld\u0131; birini ayd\u0131nlatan \u0131\u015f\u0131k kesintiliyken di\u011ferini ayd\u0131nlatan kesintisizdi. Ku\u015f e\u011fer orijinal uyaranla e\u015fle\u015fen anahtar\u0131 gagalarsa yemek verildi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00d6rne\u011fe e\u015fle\u015ftirmeli g\u00f6revlerin s\u0131k kullan\u0131lan bir \u00e7e\u015fidi, hayvan\u0131n farkl\u0131 uyaranlar i\u00e7eren daha sonraki bir se\u00e7imi kontrol ederken ilk uyaran\u0131 kullanmas\u0131n\u0131 gerektirmektedir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, e\u011fer ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7 uyaran\u0131 siyah bir \u00e7emberse, hayvan gecikme sonras\u0131nda \u201ck\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131y\u0131\u201d se\u00e7meyi \u00f6\u011frenir; e\u011fer siyah kareyse do\u011fru se\u00e7enek \u201cye\u015fildir\u201d. Bu y\u00f6ntemin ustaca kurulan t\u00fcrevleri, belle\u011fin m\u00fcdahaleye ba\u011fl\u0131 unutma ve \u00e7oklu e\u015fya belle\u011fi gibi \u00f6zelliklerini de i\u00e7eren pek \u00e7ok \u00f6zelli\u011fini ara\u015ft\u0131rmakta kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Radyal kollu labirent<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Radyal kollu labirent, uzamsal konum belle\u011fini test etmek ve konumu belirleyen mental s\u00fcre\u00e7leri belirlemekte kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Bir radyal labirent testinde, bir hayvan \u00e7e\u015fitli y\u00f6nlerle hedef kutular\u0131na ula\u015fan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir platforma b\u0131rak\u0131l\u0131r; hayvan bir ya da daha fazla hedef kutusunda yemek bulur. Bir kutuda yemek bulunca hayvan\u0131n merkez platforma d\u00f6nmesi gereklidir. Labirent hem referans hem \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma belle\u011fi testinde kullan\u0131labilir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, birden fazla seans boyu sekiz-kollu labirentin ayn\u0131 d\u00f6rt kolunun yeme\u011fe \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn. E\u011fer sonraki bir test seans\u0131nda hayvan hi\u00e7 yem konmayan bir kutuya giderse, bu durum referans belle\u011finin ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 i\u015faret eder. Di\u011fer yandan e\u011fer hayvan ayn\u0131 test seans\u0131nda \u00f6nceden bo\u015faltt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir kutuya tekrar giderse, bu durum \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma belle\u011finin ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 olacakt\u0131r. Koku ipu\u00e7lar\u0131 gibi kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k yaratan \u00e7e\u015fitli etkenlerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131, bu t\u00fcr \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarda dikkatlice kontrol edilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Su labirenti<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Su labirenti bir hayvan\u0131n uzamsal konum belle\u011fini test etmek ve bir hayvan\u0131n konumlar\u0131 nas\u0131l saptad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffetmek i\u00e7in kullan\u0131l\u0131r. Tipik olarak bu labirent, opakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f suyla dolu sirk\u00fcler bir tankt\u0131r. Labirentin bir yerine konumland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir platform, su y\u00fczeyinin hemen alt\u0131nda yer al\u0131r. Tanka b\u0131rak\u0131lan hayvan o platformu bulana dek tankta y\u00fczer. Pratik yapt\u0131k\u00e7a hayvan platformu giderek daha h\u0131zl\u0131 bulur. Referans belle\u011fi, platformu ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131p hayvan\u0131n eskiden platform olan b\u00f6lgede ne kadar zaman harcad\u0131\u011f\u0131yla belirlenir. Tank i\u00e7indeki ve \u00e7evresindeki g\u00f6rsel ve di\u011fer ipu\u00e7lar\u0131, hayvan\u0131n \u00e7evredeki referans alabilece\u011fi noktalar ve bunlar\u0131n geometrik ili\u015fkilerinden yararlanmaya ne kadar itimat etti\u011fini belirlemek i\u00e7in de\u011fi\u015ftirilebilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Uzamsal bili\u015f<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bir hayvan\u0131n ya\u015fam alan\u0131 ister kilometre karelerle, ister metre karelerle \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fcyor olsun, hayatta kalabilmesi tipik \u015fekilde o hayvan\u0131n yemek kayna\u011f\u0131 bulabilmesi ve yuvas\u0131na d\u00f6nebilmesine ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Bazen b\u00f6yle bir g\u00f6rev, bir kimyasal izi takip etmek gibi yollarla g\u00f6receli olarak basit bir \u015fekilde ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilebilir. Ancak karakteristik olarak hayvan\u0131n bir \u015fekilde konumlar, y\u00f6nler ve mesafeler hakk\u0131nda bilgi edinebilmesi ve bu bilgileri kullanabilmesi gereklidir. A\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki paragraflar hayvanlar\u0131n bunu yapma yollar\u0131ndan baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6zetlemektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00b7 Yer imleri<\/strong> Hayvanlar s\u0131kl\u0131kla yuvalar\u0131n\u0131n ya da di\u011fer hedeflerinin ne gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc \u00f6\u011frenirler ve e\u011fer g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f alanlar\u0131ndaysa basit\u00e7e ona do\u011fru hareket ederler; bunun onlar i\u00e7in \u201cyer imi\u201d g\u00f6revi g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc s\u00f6ylenir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00b7 Referans noktalar<\/strong> Bir hayvan hedefini g\u00f6remedi\u011finde, yak\u0131ndaki nesnelerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenip bu referanslar\u0131 rehber olarak kullanabilirler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00b7 Sabit konum hesab\u0131<\/strong> Ayn\u0131 zamanda \u201cyol birle\u015ftirme\u201d olarak da bilinir. Bireyin pozisyonunu, bilinen bir konumdan ba\u015flay\u0131p sonras\u0131nda gitti\u011fi mesafe ve y\u00f6nlerin kayd\u0131n\u0131 tutarak hesaplamas\u0131 s\u00fcrecidir. Klasik deneyler \u00e7\u00f6l kar\u0131ncalar\u0131n\u0131n pozisyonlar\u0131n\u0131 yiyecek aray\u0131\u015f\u0131yla gezdikleri pek \u00e7ok metreyle takip ettiklerini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Rastgele d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fleri olan bir yol izlese de, kar\u0131nca yeme\u011fi buldu\u011fu zaman do\u011frudan yuvas\u0131na d\u00f6ner. Ancak e\u011fer kar\u0131nca oldu\u011fu yerden al\u0131n\u0131p, \u00f6rne\u011fin birka\u00e7 metre do\u011fuya b\u0131rak\u0131l\u0131rsa, yuvas\u0131n\u0131n o kadar metre do\u011fusuna y\u00f6nelir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00b7 Bili\u015fsel haritalar<\/strong> Baz\u0131 hayvanlar \u00e7evrelerinin bir bili\u015fsel haritas\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturuyor gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir. Bunun anlam\u0131, iki konum aras\u0131ndaki mesafeyi ve gitmek i\u00e7in hangi y\u00f6nde gitmek gerekti\u011fini hesaplayacak \u015fekilde bilgi edinebildiklerini ve bu bilgiyi kullanabildikleridir. B\u00f6ylesi bir harita-benzeri temsillemenin, \u00f6rne\u011fin bir hayvan\u0131n \u00f6nceki tecr\u00fcbesi iki kayna\u011fa da yuvas\u0131ndan gitmesi olsa da, bir yemek kayna\u011f\u0131ndan di\u011ferine direkt gidi\u015finde kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00fcd\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Bu alandaki ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar ayn\u0131 zamanda s\u0131\u00e7anlar ve g\u00fcvercinlerin \u00e7evrelerinin geometrik \u00f6zelliklerini kullanmas\u0131, s\u0131\u00e7anlar\u0131n hem radyal kol labirentlerinde hem su labirentlerinde uzamsal \u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler temsillemesi gibi \u015feyleri ortaya \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Uzamsal bili\u015f bir hayvan ya da insan\u0131n \u00e7evresindeki pek \u00e7ok nesne i\u00e7inden belli nesneleri g\u00f6rsel olarak aramas\u0131nda kullan\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00b7 Sapma davran\u0131\u015f\u0131<\/strong> Baz\u0131 hayvanlar uzamsal \u00e7evrelerine dair ileri bir anlay\u0131\u015fa sahip gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir ve e\u011fer daha dolayl\u0131 bir yol izlemek avantajlar\u0131naysa, hedeflerine giden en direkt yolu tercih etmezler. Baz\u0131 s\u0131\u00e7rayan \u00f6r\u00fcmcekler avlar\u0131na en direkt yoldan gitmektense daha dolayl\u0131 bir yol kullan\u0131r; bu onlar\u0131n davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 ve rota belirlemedeki esnekliklerini ve muhtemel bir i\u00e7sel \u00f6\u011frenimi i\u015faret eder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Uzun-mesafeli y\u00f6n bulma; y\u00f6ng\u00fcd\u00fcm<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pek \u00e7ok hayvan mevsimsel g\u00f6\u00e7 s\u0131ras\u0131nda ya da \u00fcreme yerlerine giderken y\u00fczlerce ya da binlerce mil kat eder. G\u00fcne\u015f, di\u011fer y\u0131ld\u0131zlar, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n polarizasyonu, manyetik ipu\u00e7lar\u0131, kokusal ipu\u00e7lar\u0131, r\u00fczgarlar ya da bunlar\u0131n bir kombinasyonunun rehberli\u011finden yararlanabilirler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kuyruksuz maymunlar ve kurtlar gibi hayvanlar\u0131n uzamsal bili\u015fte iyi olma nedenlerinin bu yetene\u011fin hayatta kalmak i\u00e7in gereklili\u011fi oldu\u011fu \u00f6ne s\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcr. Baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar bu kabiliyetin k\u00f6peklerde bir \u015fekilde kaybolmu\u015f olabilece\u011fini, bunun nedeninin insanlar\u0131n onlara yakla\u015f\u0131k 15.000 y\u0131ll\u0131k bir evcille\u015ftirme s\u00fcreci boyunca yemek ve bar\u0131nak sa\u011flamas\u0131 oldu\u011funu savunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zamanlama<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

G\u00fcn\u00fcn zaman\u0131: sirkadyen ritmleri<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00c7o\u011fu hayvan\u0131n davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 d\u00fcnyan\u0131n g\u00fcnl\u00fck ayd\u0131nl\u0131k-karanl\u0131k d\u00f6ng\u00fcs\u00fcyle senkronizedir. Bu nedenle pek \u00e7ok hayvan g\u00fcnd\u00fcz aktifken di\u011ferleri gece aktiftir, yine baz\u0131lar\u0131 \u015fafak ya da alacakaranl\u0131k yak\u0131nlar\u0131nda aktiftir. Her ne kadar ki\u015fi bu \u201csirkadyen ritmlerinin\u201d basit\u00e7e \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ya da yoklu\u011fuyla kontrol edildi\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnebilirse de, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma yap\u0131lan hayvanlar\u0131n neredeyse tamam\u0131, s\u00fcrekli ayd\u0131nl\u0131k ya da karanl\u0131k ko\u015fullar\u0131nda bile aktivite d\u00f6ng\u00fcleri sa\u011flayan bir \u201cbiyolojik saat\u201d sahibi olduklar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Sirkadyen ritmleri \u00f6ylesine otomatik ve canl\u0131lar i\u00e7in \u00f6nemlidir ki \u2014 bitkilerde bile bulunurlar \u2014 genellikle bili\u015fsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerden ayr\u0131ca ele al\u0131n\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

S\u00fcre\u00e7 zamanlamas\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayatta kalmak s\u0131kl\u0131kla hayvan\u0131n s\u00fcre\u00e7 zamanlamas\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin k\u0131z\u0131l sinekku\u015fu \u00e7i\u00e7ek nektar\u0131yla beslenir ve s\u0131kl\u0131kla ayn\u0131 \u00e7i\u00e7e\u011fe d\u00f6ner; ancak bunu yaln\u0131zca \u00e7i\u00e7e\u011fin yeterince nektar yenilemesine yetecek bir zaman ge\u00e7tikten sonra yapar. Bir deneyde sinekku\u015flar\u0131 h\u0131zl\u0131ca nektar\u0131 biten ancak sabit bir s\u00fcre (\u00f6r. yirmi dakika) sonra dolan yapay \u00e7i\u00e7eklerle beslendiler. Ku\u015flar yakla\u015f\u0131k do\u011fru zamanda geri d\u00f6nmeyi \u00f6\u011frendiler ve sekiz ayr\u0131 \u00e7i\u00e7e\u011fin dolum h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenip hangi \u00e7i\u00e7e\u011fi ne kadar zaman \u00f6nce ziyaret ettiklerini hat\u0131rlad\u0131lar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

S\u00fcre\u00e7 zamanlamas\u0131n\u0131n ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 baz\u0131 t\u00fcrlerde \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. En yayg\u0131n y\u00f6ntemlerden biri \u201czirve y\u00f6ntemi\u201ddir. Tipik bir deneyde, bir i\u015flem odas\u0131ndaki s\u0131\u00e7an yemek i\u00e7in bir d\u00fczene\u011fin koluna basar. Bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k gelir, bir kol bas\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 takip eden sabit bir s\u00fcre, \u00f6rne\u011fin on saniye sonras\u0131nda bir yem peletiyle sonu\u00e7lan\u0131r. Zamanlama, bir yeme\u011fin verilmedi\u011fi ve \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131n oldu\u011fu durumlarda \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu denemelerde s\u0131\u00e7an yakla\u015f\u0131k on saniye boyunca kola giderek artan say\u0131larda basar ve yemek gelmeyince kademeli olarak basmay\u0131 b\u0131rak\u0131r. Bu deneylerde s\u0131\u00e7anlar\u0131n kola en \u00e7ok bast\u0131klar\u0131 s\u00fcre, fare i\u00e7in tahmini \u00f6d\u00fcl zaman\u0131 olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zirve y\u00f6ntemini kullanan deneyler ve di\u011fer y\u00f6ntemler g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir ki, hayvanlar k\u0131sa s\u00fcre\u00e7leri olduk\u00e7a do\u011fru zamanlamaktad\u0131r. Birden fazla olay\u0131 tek seferde zamanlayabilirler ve zaman\u0131 uzamsal ve di\u011fer ipu\u00e7lar\u0131yla birle\u015ftirebilirler. B\u00f6yle testler ayn\u0131 zamanda hayvan zamanlamas\u0131 teorilerinin kantitatif testlerinde (Gibbon\u2019\u0131n Say\u0131sal Bekleyi\u015f Teorisi, Killeen\u2019in Zamanlaman\u0131n Davran\u0131\u015fsal Teorisi ve Machado\u2019nun Zamanlamay\u0131 \u00d6\u011frenme modeli vb.) kullan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hi\u00e7bir teori hen\u00fcz genel kabule ula\u015famam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alet ve silah kullan\u0131m\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Her ne kadar uzun s\u00fcre alet kullan\u0131m\u0131 insana \u00f6zg\u00fc bir \u00f6zellik olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclm\u00fc\u015fse de, bug\u00fcn memeliler, ku\u015flar, kafadan bacakl\u0131lar ve b\u00f6cekler gibi pek \u00e7ok hayvan\u0131n alet kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair kan\u0131t var. Alet kullan\u0131m\u0131 tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 s\u0131kl\u0131kla neyin \u201calet\u201d te\u015fkil etti\u011fi hakk\u0131nda bir tart\u0131\u015fma i\u00e7erir ve alet s\u0131kl\u0131kla hayvan\u0131n zekas\u0131 ve beyninin boyutuyla ili\u015fkilendirilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Memeliler<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Alet kullan\u0131m\u0131 hem vah\u015fi hem tutsak primatlarda, \u00f6zellikle de b\u00fcy\u00fck kuyruksuz maymunlarda pek \u00e7ok kez bildirilmi\u015ftir. Aletlerin primatlarca kullan\u0131m\u0131 \u00e7e\u015fitlidir ve avlanmay\u0131 (memeliler, omurgas\u0131zlar, bal\u0131klar), bal toplamay\u0131, g\u0131da i\u015flemeyi (kabuklu yemi\u015fler, meyveler, sebzeler ve tohumlar), su biriktirmeyi, silahlar\u0131 ve bar\u0131naklar\u0131 i\u00e7erir. 2007\u2019de yap\u0131lan bir ara\u015ft\u0131rma, insanlar d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir t\u00fcr\u00fcn sistematik silah kullan\u0131m\u0131na ilk kan\u0131t olarak Fongoli Savanas\u0131\u2019ndaki \u015fempanzelerin \u00e7ubuklar\u0131 sivrilterek avlan\u0131rken m\u0131zrak olarak kulland\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Vah\u015fi ya\u015famlar\u0131nda ya da tutsakken kendili\u011finden alet kullanan di\u011fer memeliler filleri, ay\u0131lar\u0131, deniz memelilerini, su samurlar\u0131n\u0131 ve firavun farelerini i\u00e7ermektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ku\u015flar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

B\u00fclb\u00fcl, papa\u011fan, M\u0131s\u0131r akbabas\u0131, kahverengi kafal\u0131 s\u0131vac\u0131 ku\u015fu, mart\u0131lar ve bayku\u015flar gibi bir\u00e7ok ku\u015f t\u00fcr\u00fc vah\u015fi ya\u015famda alet kullan\u0131rken g\u00f6zlemlenmi\u015ftir. Galapagos Adalar\u0131\u2019n\u0131n a\u011fa\u00e7kakan ispinozlar\u0131 gibi baz\u0131 t\u00fcrler, yemek aray\u0131\u015flar\u0131nda elzem bir yeri olan belli aletler kullan\u0131rlar. Ancak bu davran\u0131\u015flar s\u0131kl\u0131kla esnetilemez ve yeni durumlarda etkili bi\u00e7imde kullan\u0131lamaz. \u00c7ok say\u0131da ku\u015f t\u00fcr\u00fc olduk\u00e7a de\u011fi\u015fken karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131klarda yuvalar in\u015fa etmektedir; ancak yuva in\u015fa etme davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u201calet kullan\u0131m\u0131\u201dn\u0131n baz\u0131 tan\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lasa da, di\u011fer tan\u0131mlarda bu kar\u015f\u0131lanmamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bir\u00e7ok kargagil t\u00fcr\u00fc kontroll\u00fc deneylerde alet kullanmak \u00fczere e\u011fitilmi\u015ftir. Laboratuvar ko\u015fullar\u0131nda geni\u015f\u00e7e incelenen t\u00fcrlerden biri Yeni Kaledonya kargas\u0131d\u0131r. Betty ad\u0131ndaki bir karga, kendisine olduk\u00e7a yabanc\u0131 gelen bir problemi \u00e7\u00f6zmek i\u00e7in bir teli alet olarak kulland\u0131. Betty, bir kuyudan yemek \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131rken \u00e7engel \u015feklindeki bir teli mi kullanaca\u011f\u0131, yoksa d\u00fcz teli deneyece\u011fi hakk\u0131nda test edildi. Betty, eti d\u00fcz telle d\u00fcrtmeyi denedi. Bu do\u011frudan yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n bir dizi ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z sonuca ula\u015fmas\u0131ndan sonra, teli \u00e7ekti ve onu kuyunun yap\u0131\u015fkan bantla kapl\u0131 sonuna y\u00f6nlendirmeye ba\u015flad\u0131. Tel \u00e7abucak yap\u0131\u015ft\u0131; sonras\u0131nda Betty onu yana do\u011fru \u00e7ekip, b\u00fckerek kurtard\u0131. Sonras\u0131nda kancal\u0131 teli kuyuya g\u00f6nderdi ve eti \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. Devam\u0131ndaki on denemeden yaln\u0131z birinde sadece d\u00fcz tel verildi; Betty \u00f6nce onu d\u00fcz \u015fekilde kullanmay\u0131 deneyip sonra bir kanca yaparak ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde kulland\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bal\u0131klar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pek \u00e7ok lapina t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn, iki-kapakl\u0131lar\u0131n (deniz tara\u011f\u0131, deniz kestanesi, istiridye) kabuklar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131rarken kayalar\u0131 \u00f6rs olarak kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6zlenmi\u015ftir. Bu davran\u0131\u015f ilk kez bir turuncu noktal\u0131 fildi\u015fi bal\u0131\u011f\u0131nda (Choerodon anchorago<\/em>), 2009 y\u0131l\u0131nda Giacomo Bernardi taraf\u0131ndan videoya \u00e7ekilmi\u015ftir. Bal\u0131k, iki-kapakl\u0131y\u0131 zemininden ay\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kumlar\u0131 kald\u0131r\u0131p, av\u0131n\u0131 a\u011fz\u0131yla tutarak bir kayaya y\u00fczd\u00fckten sonra, kayay\u0131 \u00f6rs olarak kullanarak ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011fa sola savurup yumu\u015fak\u00e7ay\u0131 par\u00e7alayana kadar kayaya \u00e7arpar. Bu davran\u0131\u015f ayn\u0131 zamanda Avustralya\u2019n\u0131n B\u00fcy\u00fck Bariyer Resifi\u2019ndeki karalekeli fildi\u015fi bal\u0131\u011f\u0131nda (Choerodon schoenleinii<\/em>), Florida\u2019daki sar\u0131ba\u015fl\u0131 lapinada (Halichoeres garnoti<\/em>) ve akvaryum ortam\u0131ndaki alt\u0131-\u00e7izgili lapinada (Thalassoma hardwicke<\/em>) da g\u00f6zlenmi\u015ftir. Bu t\u00fcrler, familyan\u0131n filogenetik a\u011fac\u0131n\u0131n z\u0131t sonlar\u0131nda yer almaktad\u0131r, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla bu davran\u0131\u015f t\u00fcm lapinalarda yerle\u015fmi\u015f olabilir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Omurgas\u0131zlar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Baz\u0131 kafadanbacakl\u0131lar\u0131n hindistan cevizi kabuklar\u0131n\u0131 korunmak ya da kamuflaj i\u00e7in kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 biliniyor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conomyrma bicolor<\/em> t\u00fcr\u00fcnden kar\u0131ncalar, ta\u015flar\u0131 ve di\u011fer k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck cisimleri \u00e7eneleriyle ta\u015f\u0131y\u0131p rakip kolonilerin dikey giri\u015flerine b\u0131rak\u0131r, b\u00f6ylece i\u015f\u00e7ilerin rekabet olmadan yemek aramalar\u0131 sa\u011flanmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ak\u0131l y\u00fcr\u00fctme ve problem \u00e7\u00f6zme<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Olduk\u00e7a b\u00fcy\u00fck miktarda t\u00fcr\u00fcn, soyut d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce gerektiriyor gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen sorunlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zebildi\u011fi a\u015fikard\u0131r. Wolfgang K\u00f6hler\u2019in (1917) \u015fempanzelerle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131 bunun \u00fcnl\u00fc ilk \u00f6rneklerindendir. K\u00f6hler, \u015fempanzelerin eri\u015fimlerinin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kalan muzlar\u0131 almak gibi sorunlarda deneme yan\u0131lma yapmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6zlemlemi\u015ftir. Bunun yerine \u015fempanzeler \u201ckararl\u0131 bir ereksellik\u201d denebilecek bir \u015fekilde davran\u0131p, kendi kendilerine kutular\u0131 meyveye ula\u015fabilecekleri bi\u00e7imde yerle\u015ftirdiler. Modern ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, benzeri davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 \u00e7ok daha az zekas\u0131 oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen hayvanlarda da yeterli \u00f6n e\u011fitim verildi\u011fi takdirde saptam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Nedensel ak\u0131l y\u00fcr\u00fctme ayn\u0131 zamanda ekinkargalar\u0131 ve Yeni Kaledonya kargalar\u0131nda da g\u00f6zlenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kentsel alanlardaki Barbados \u015fakrakku\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n (Loxigilla barbadensis<\/em>) yarat\u0131c\u0131 problem \u00e7\u00f6zme g\u00f6revlerinde k\u0131rsal \u00e7evrelerdeki \u015fakrakku\u015flar\u0131ndan daha iyi olduklar\u0131, ancak renk ayr\u0131m\u0131nda bir farklar\u0131 bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bili\u015fsel \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bili\u015fsel \u00f6nyarg\u0131, di\u011fer bireyler ya da durumlar hakk\u0131ndaki \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131mlar\u0131n mant\u0131ks\u0131z bir bi\u00e7imde \u015fekillenirken, muhakemenin norm ya da rasyonaliteden bir sistematik \u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcyle ayr\u0131lmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bili\u015fsel \u00f6nyarg\u0131 bazen \u201cBu bardak yar\u0131 dolu mu, yar\u0131 bo\u015f mu?\u201d sorusuyla resmedilmektedir. \u201cYar\u0131 bo\u015f\u201d se\u00e7ene\u011finin karamsarl\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u201cyar\u0131 dolu\u201d se\u00e7ene\u011finin ise iyimserli\u011fi i\u015faret etti\u011fi s\u00f6ylenir. Bunu hayvanlarda test etmek i\u00e7in, bir hayvan A uyaran\u0131n\u0131n, \u00f6rne\u011fin bir 100 Hz frekansl\u0131 sesin, pozitif bir olay\u0131 \u00f6nceledi\u011fi y\u00f6n\u00fcnde, \u00f6rne\u011fin hayvan\u0131n d\u00fczenek koluna basmas\u0131yla olduk\u00e7a istenen bir yeme\u011fin verilmesi gibi bir \u015fekilde e\u011fitilir. Ayn\u0131 hayvan B uyaran\u0131nda, \u00f6rne\u011fin 900 Hz sesin negatif bir olay\u0131 \u00f6nceledi\u011fini bekleyecek \u015fekilde e\u011fitilir; \u00f6rne\u011fin, hayvan kola bast\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman tats\u0131z bir yemek verilir. Sonras\u0131nda hayvan ortalama bir C uyaran\u0131yla, \u00f6rne\u011fin 500 Hz sesle test edilir ve hayvan\u0131n kolu pozitif mi negatif mi bir sonu\u00e7la ili\u015fkilendirdi\u011fi g\u00f6zlenir. Bunun hayvan\u0131n pozitif ya da negatif bir duygudurumda olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtece\u011fi ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bu yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131 kullanan bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmada g\u0131d\u0131klanan s\u0131\u00e7anlar, yaln\u0131zca bak\u0131m\u0131 yap\u0131lan s\u0131\u00e7anlardan farkl\u0131 tepki verdi. G\u0131d\u0131klanan s\u0131\u00e7anlar, sadece bak\u0131m\u0131 yap\u0131lan s\u0131\u00e7anlara g\u00f6re daha iyimserdi. Ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar b\u00f6ylece \u201c\u2026ilk kez do\u011frudan \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclen olumlu duygudurumla belirsizlikte karar verme aras\u0131nda bir ba\u011flant\u0131y\u0131 hayvan modelinde\u201d ortaya koyduklar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylediler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bili\u015fsel \u00f6nyarg\u0131n\u0131n s\u0131\u00e7anlar, k\u00f6pekler, rhesus makaklar\u0131, koyunlar, civcivler, s\u0131\u011f\u0131rc\u0131klar ve bal ar\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 i\u00e7eren birtak\u0131m t\u00fcrde oldu\u011funa dair baz\u0131 kan\u0131tlar bulunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dil<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130nsan dilinin hayvanlardaki modellenmesi, hayvan dil ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131 olarak ge\u00e7mektedir. Kuyruksuz maymunlardaki dil deneylerine ek olarak, ayn\u0131 zamanda papa\u011fanlar ve b\u00fcy\u00fck benekli a\u011fa\u00e7kakanlar\u0131 da i\u00e7eren, primat olmayan t\u00fcrlere dil veya dil benzeri davran\u0131\u015f \u00f6\u011fretme konusunda baz\u0131 benzer d\u00fczeyde ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 giri\u015fimler yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Nim Chimpsky adl\u0131 hayvanla edindi\u011fi sonu\u00e7lardan ve di\u011fer sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 analiz eden Herbert Terrace, \u015fempanzelerin yeni c\u00fcmleler \u00fcretebildi\u011fi fikrini ele\u015ftirmi\u015ftir. Louis Herman bundan k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra \u015fi\u015feburunlu yunuslar\u0131n yapay dilleri kavray\u0131\u015flar\u0131yla ilgili bir ara\u015ft\u0131rma yay\u0131nlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Herman, Richards, & Wolz, 1984). Her ne kadar bu t\u00fcr \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar \u00f6zellikle bili\u015fsel dilbilimciler aras\u0131nda ihtilafl\u0131ysa da, pek \u00e7ok ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131 bir\u00e7ok hayvan\u0131n tek kelimelerin anlam\u0131n\u0131 kavrayabildi\u011fini, baz\u0131 hayvanlar\u0131n da basit c\u00fcmleleri ve sentaktik \u00e7e\u015fitlilikleri kavrayabildi\u011fi konusunda hemfikirdir. Ancak herhangi bir hayvan\u0131n yeni c\u00fcmlelere denk gelecek sembol dizileri olu\u015fturabildi\u011fi \u00fcst\u00fcne pek az kan\u0131t bulunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Wolgang K\u00f6hler, genellikle deneysel psikolojiye i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fc konseptini katan ki\u015fi olarak bilinir. \u015eempanzelerle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan K\u00f6hler, Edward Thorndike\u2019\u0131n hayvanlar\u0131n problemleri kademeli olarak deneme yan\u0131lmayla \u00e7\u00f6zmeleri gerekti\u011fi teorisinden \u015f\u00fcphe etmeye ba\u015flad\u0131. K\u00f6hler, Thorndike\u2019\u0131n hayvanlar\u0131n\u0131n sadece deneme yan\u0131lma kullanabilmesinin nedeninin, durumlar\u0131n\u0131n di\u011fer problem \u00e7\u00f6zme \u015fekillerini olanaks\u0131zla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yledi. \u015eempanzelere nispeten yap\u0131sal olmayan bir durum olu\u015fturdu\u011funda, bir \u015fempanzenin bir kutuyu muza ula\u015fabilece\u011fi yere koymaya birden y\u00f6nlenivermesi gibi ani \u201ca-ha!\u201d anlar\u0131yla i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcsel davran\u0131\u015f de\u011fi\u015fimleri ge\u00e7irdi\u011fini g\u00f6zlemledi. Daha yak\u0131n zamanda Asya fillerinin (Elephas maximus<\/em>) benzer i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fc problem \u00e7\u00f6me davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 sergiledikleri g\u00f6sterildi. Bir erkek filin, bir kutuyu \u00f6nceden eri\u015femeyece\u011fi bir yeme\u011fe eri\u015fmek i\u00e7in \u00fcst\u00fcne \u00e7\u0131kmak amac\u0131yla hareket ettirdi\u011fi g\u00f6zlemlendi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Matematiksel beceri<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u00c7e\u015fitli \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar hayvanlar\u0131n say\u0131sal bilgileri kullanabildi\u011fini ve ileti\u015fimlerinde aktarabildi\u011fine, baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n da ilkel d\u00fczeyde say\u0131 sayabildi\u011fine i\u015faret etmektedir. Baz\u0131 \u00f6rnek ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da verilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmada rhesus maymunlar\u0131na farkl\u0131 \u00e7e\u015fitlerde 1, 2, 3, ya da 4 e\u015fya nesne bulunan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcler g\u00f6sterildi. Bunlara, say\u0131sal s\u0131ralamay\u0131 da i\u00e7eren \u00e7e\u015fitli yollardan yan\u0131t vermek i\u00e7in e\u011fitildiler. \u00d6rne\u011fin ilk olarak \u201c1\u201de, sonra \u201c2\u201dye dokunacaklard\u0131 ve bu s\u0131ray\u0131 takip edeceklerdi. Daha \u00f6nceden hi\u00e7 g\u00f6rmedikleri e\u015fyalar ta\u015f\u0131yan g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclerle test edildiklerinde, g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fclere ayn\u0131 d\u00fczenle yan\u0131t vermeye devam ettiler. Ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, maymunlar\u0131n en az\u0131ndan s\u0131ralamal\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7ekte 1\u2019den 9\u2019a kadarki say\u0131sal \u00e7okluklar\u0131 temsilleyebildikleri sonucuna ula\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kar\u0131ncalar say\u0131sal de\u011ferleri kullanabilmekte ve bu bilgiyi iletebilmektedir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u00e7e\u015fitli t\u00fcrlerden kar\u0131ncalar kendi yemek b\u00f6lgelerinde di\u011fer koloni \u00fcyeleriyle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fma say\u0131lar\u0131na dair olduk\u00e7a isabetli saptamalarda bulunabilmektedir. Matematiksel beceri, sar\u0131 un kurdu b\u00f6ceklerinde ve bal ar\u0131lar\u0131nda da tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bat\u0131 ova gorillerine iki farkl\u0131 yemek tepsisi se\u00e7ene\u011fi sunuldu\u011funda, daha \u00e7ok yemek bulunan tepsiyi se\u00e7me ihtimalleri e\u011fitimle birlikte artmaktad\u0131r. Benzeri bir deneyde \u015fempanzeler daha fazla emek olan se\u00e7ene\u011fi se\u00e7mi\u015ftir. Semenderler farkl\u0131 say\u0131da meyve sine\u011fi i\u00e7eren iki g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc g\u00f6sterildi\u011finde, \u00f6d\u00fcl olarak yemek verilince, daha fazla sinek olan g\u00f6rseli se\u00e7tiklerini g\u00f6steren bir deney bulunmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Di\u011fer deneyler hayvanlar\u0131n yemek olmayan \u015feylerin niceli\u011fini ayr\u0131msama kabiliyetlerini g\u00f6stermek \u00fczere y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Amerikan siyah ay\u0131lar\u0131, bir bilgisayar ekran\u0131ndan yararlan\u0131lan deneyde nicelik ayr\u0131m\u0131 yapabildiklerini g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Ay\u0131lar, ekrandaki iki kutudan birindeki noktalar\u0131 miktarlar\u0131na g\u00f6re se\u00e7mek \u00fczere pen\u00e7e ya da burunlar\u0131yla dokunmak \u00fczere e\u011fitildiler. E\u011fitim s\u00fcresince ay\u0131lar do\u011fru yan\u0131tlarda yemekle \u00f6d\u00fcllendirildiler. T\u00fcm ay\u0131lar, deneyde hareket etmeyen noktalar sunuldu\u011funda, rastgele hata oran\u0131n\u0131n belirledi\u011finin \u00fcst\u00fcnde bir ba\u015far\u0131 sergilediler. Ay\u0131lar, noktalar\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n bulunduklar\u0131 kutunun boyutuyla orant\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011fu ve olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 iki farkl\u0131 deneyde do\u011fru yan\u0131t vererek, ger\u00e7ekten de ekranda beliren noktalar\u0131n niceli\u011fini se\u00e7tiklerini ve sadece daha b\u00fcy\u00fck ya da k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck retinal imgelerle se\u00e7im yapmad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterdi. E\u011fer retinal imgelere g\u00f6re se\u00e7im yap\u0131yor olsayd\u0131lar, bu sadece boyutla muhakeme yapt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6sterecekti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u015ei\u015feburunlu yunuslar, iki s\u0131radan daha az nokta i\u00e7ereni se\u00e7me kabiliyeti g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Deneyi kurgulayanlar, bir havuz ortam\u0131nda farkl\u0131 say\u0131da noktalar i\u00e7eren iki tahta kulland\u0131lar. Yunuslar \u00f6nce daha az nokta olan tahtay\u0131 se\u00e7mek \u00fczere e\u011fitildiler. Bu, yunusun daha az nokta olan tahtaya her yakla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u00f6d\u00fcllendirilmesiyle yap\u0131ld\u0131. Deneyin test k\u0131sm\u0131nda, iki tahta kuruldu ve yunusun sudan \u00e7\u0131karak tahtalardan birine i\u015faret etmesi bekleniyordu. Yunuslar, daha az nokta olan tahtay\u0131 \u015fans eseri olabilecek orandan \u00e7ok daha y\u00fcksek bir s\u0131kl\u0131kla se\u00e7tiler; bu, onlar\u0131n say\u0131lar\u0131 ay\u0131rt edebildiklerini g\u00f6stermektedir. Belli bir gri papa\u011fan, e\u011fitimden sonra s\u0131f\u0131rdan alt\u0131ya kadar say\u0131lar\u0131 vokalizasyonla ay\u0131rt edebilme kabiliyeti g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Rakam ve vokalizasyon e\u011fitiminden sonra deney, papa\u011fana ka\u00e7 tane nesnenin g\u00f6sterildi\u011fi sorularak yap\u0131ld\u0131. Melek bal\u0131\u011f\u0131, bilmedi\u011fi bir ortama b\u0131rak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda t\u00fcrde\u015fleriyle grup olu\u015fturacakt\u0131r; buna s\u00fcr\u00fcle\u015fme denir. \u0130ki farkl\u0131 boyuttaki grup aras\u0131nda se\u00e7im sunuldu\u011funda, melek bal\u0131\u011f\u0131 iki gruptan daha b\u00fcy\u00fck olan\u0131n\u0131 se\u00e7ecektir. Bu durum 2:1 oran\u0131 veya daha \u00fcst\u00fcn\u00fcn ay\u0131rt edilmesiyle g\u00f6r\u00fclebilmektedir; yani gruplardan birinde di\u011ferindekinin en az iki kat\u0131 bal\u0131k oldu\u011fu s\u00fcrece, bal\u0131k b\u00fcy\u00fck grubu se\u00e7ecektir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dev kertenkelelerin matematiksel becerisinin oldu\u011fu ve baz\u0131 t\u00fcrlerin alt\u0131ya kadarki say\u0131lar\u0131 ayr\u0131msayabildi\u011fi g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zeka<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130nsan olmayan hayvanlar\u0131n bili\u015fsel kabiliyet ve zekas\u0131 s\u00f6zl\u00fc \u00f6l\u00e7eklerle \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclemedi\u011finden, tersine al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131k kazand\u0131rma, sosyal \u00f6\u011frenme ve tamamen farkl\u0131 durumlara yan\u0131t verme gibi \u00e7e\u015fitli yollarla \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Temel Bile\u015fenler Analizi ve fakt\u00f6r analizi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131, bir tekil zeka fakt\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcn, primatlardaki bireysel bili\u015fsel kabiliyet \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmlerinde olu\u015fan \u00e7e\u015fitliliklerin %47\u2019sinden sorumlu oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bu oran farelerde %55 ile %60 oranlar\u0131nda de\u011fi\u015fkenlik g\u00f6stermektedir. Bu de\u011ferler, insanlardaki genel zeka fakt\u00f6r\u00fc olarak bilinen tekil zeka fakt\u00f6r\u00fc olarak a\u00e7\u0131klanan IQ\u2019da kabul edilen de\u011fi\u015fkenli\u011fe (%40\u201350) yak\u0131nd\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Genel zeka fakt\u00f6r\u00fc ya da g<\/em> fakt\u00f6r\u00fc, bir bireyin \u00e7e\u015fitli bili\u015fsel kabiliyet \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcmlerindeki skorlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda g\u00f6zlemlenen korelasyonlar\u0131 \u00f6zetleyen bir psikometrik yap\u0131d\u0131r. g<\/em> fakt\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcn evrimsel ya\u015fam tarihine ve zekan\u0131n evrimine, ayr\u0131ca sosyal \u00f6\u011frenme ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel zekaya da ili\u015fkin oldu\u011fu belirtilmektedir. g<\/em>\u2019nin insan olmayan modelleri, genetik ve n\u00f6rolojik ara\u015ft\u0131rmalarda g<\/em>\u2019nin de\u011fi\u015fkenli\u011finin arkas\u0131ndaki mekanizmalar\u0131 daha iyi anlamak i\u00e7in kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zihin teorisi<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zihin teorisi, erek, arzu, rol yapma, bilgilenim gibi mental evreleri kendine ve ba\u015fkalar\u0131na atfetme ve ba\u015fkalar\u0131n\u0131n ki\u015fiden farkl\u0131 arzular, erekler ve perspektiflere sahip olduklar\u0131n\u0131 anlama kabiliyetidir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kuzgunlarla yap\u0131lan baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, zihin teorisinin insan olmayan t\u00fcrlerde oldu\u011funu kan\u0131tlayan bir \u00f6rnek sunmaktad\u0131r. Kuzgunlar Corvidae familyas\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcyesidir; bu familyan\u0131n y\u00fcksek bili\u015fsel kabiliyetleri oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. Bu ku\u015flar\u0131n, bask\u0131n kuzgunlar\u0131 ayn\u0131 anda hem g\u00f6r\u00fcp hem de duyabildiklerinde, yemeklerini gizledikleri g\u00f6zlemlenmi\u015ftir. Bu g\u00f6zlemden hareketle kuzgunlar, bir mental evre olarak \u201cg\u00f6rme\u201d hakk\u0131ndaki anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcnden test edildiler. \u0130lk ad\u0131mda ku\u015flar, bask\u0131n bireyler g\u00f6r\u00fclebiliyorken zulalar\u0131n\u0131 korumu\u015f, ancak yan odadan yaln\u0131zca sesleri gelirken harekete ge\u00e7memi\u015flerdir. Sonraki ad\u0131mda, yan oday\u0131 g\u00f6rmelerini sa\u011flayacak bir g\u00f6zetleme deli\u011fi a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. G\u00f6zetleme deli\u011fi a\u00e7\u0131kken, kuzgunlar bask\u0131n bireyleri yan odada duyduklar\u0131nda, bask\u0131n bireyin sesi kay\u0131tlardan oynat\u0131lsa da zulalar\u0131n\u0131 korumu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bilin\u00e7<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayvanlar\u0131n bilin\u00e7leri ya da benlik alg\u0131s\u0131 oldu\u011funun s\u00f6ylenebilece\u011fi durumlar, \u015fiddetli tart\u0131\u015fmalara konu olmu\u015ftur. Bu alanda en iyi bilinen ara\u015ft\u0131rma tekni\u011fi, Gordon G. Gallup\u2019\u0131n tertipledi\u011fi ayna testidir. Testte hayvan uyurken ya da sedasyon alt\u0131ndayken derisine bir i\u015faret konur ve sonras\u0131nda yans\u0131mas\u0131n\u0131 bir aynada g\u00f6rmesi sa\u011flan\u0131r; e\u011fer hayvan kendili\u011finden i\u015fareti temizleme hareketine y\u00f6nelirse bu, kendisinin fark\u0131nda oldu\u011fu \u015feklinde yorumlan\u0131r. Bu kritere g\u00f6re \u00f6z fark\u0131ndal\u0131k \u015fempanzelerde ve ayr\u0131ca baz\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck kuyruksuz maymunlarda, Avrupa saksa\u011fanlar\u0131nda, baz\u0131 deniz memelilerinde ve bir Asya filinde bildirilmi\u015ftir; ancak maymunlarda buna rastlanmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayna testi baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan tamamen g\u00f6rmeye, yani insanlar\u0131n birincil duyusuna odakland\u0131\u011f\u0131, oysa di\u011fer t\u00fcrlerin k\u00f6peklerin koku duyusuyla oldu\u011fu gibi di\u011fer duyulardan daha \u00e7ok yararland\u0131\u011f\u0131 fikriyle ele\u015ftirilmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Baz\u0131 hayvanlarda metakognisyonun, bili\u015fsel \u00f6z fark\u0131ndal\u0131\u011fa baz\u0131 kan\u0131tlar sundu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenmi\u015ftir. B\u00fcy\u00fck kuyruksuz maymunlar, yunuslar ve rhesus maymunlar\u0131n\u0131n kendi mental evrelerini inceleyebildikleri ve bir \u201cbilmiyorum\u201d yan\u0131t\u0131yla zor sorular\u0131 cevaplamaktan ka\u00e7\u0131nd\u0131klar\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir. Bireyin kendi bedensel ko\u015fullar\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcne fark\u0131ndal\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131karan ayna testinin aksine, bu belirsizlik g\u00f6zleminin bireyin i\u00e7sel mental evrelerinin fark\u0131ndal\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir. 2007 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki bir \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, her ne kadar b\u00f6yle yorumlanmas\u0131 sorgulan\u0131yorsa da, s\u0131\u00e7anlarda metakognisyona dair baz\u0131 kan\u0131tlar sunmu\u015ftur. Bu t\u00fcrler ayn\u0131 zamanda kendi belleklerinin g\u00fcc\u00fcnden de haberdar olabilirler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, hayvanlar\u0131n yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131lar\u0131n ve di\u011fer vokal davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n bilince dair kan\u0131tlar sundu\u011funu ileri s\u00fcrmektedir. Bu fikir, Weir\u2019\u0131n (1962) \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n be\u015fik konu\u015fmalar\u0131 hakk\u0131ndaki ara\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131 ve Greenfield ve di\u011ferlerinin (1976) \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n erken d\u00f6nem konu\u015fmalar\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcne incelemelerinden do\u011fmu\u015ftur. Baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar bir macaw papa\u011fan\u0131yla yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2012 temmuzunda, Cambridge\u2019deki \u0130nsan ve \u0130nsan-olmayan Hayvanlarda Bilin\u00e7 Konferans\u0131\u2019nda bir grup bilim insan\u0131 \u015fu deklarasyonu imzalad\u0131lar:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kan\u0131tlar, insan olmayan hayvanlar\u0131n n\u00f6roanatomik, n\u00f6rokimyasal ve n\u00f6rofizyolojik olarak bilin\u00e7lilik evrelerinin altyap\u0131s\u0131na sahip olduklar\u0131 ve buna ek olarak ereksel davran\u0131\u015flar sergilediklerinde kesi\u015fmektedir. Sonu\u00e7 olarak, kan\u0131tlar\u0131n a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc insanlar\u0131n bilin\u00e7 \u00fcreten n\u00f6rolojik altyap\u0131ya sahip olmakta yaln\u0131z olmad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. T\u00fcm memelileri, ku\u015flar\u0131 ve ahtapotlar dahil ba\u015fka pek \u00e7ok yarat\u0131\u011f\u0131 da kapsayan pek \u00e7ok insan olmayan hayvanda da bu n\u00f6rolojik altyap\u0131lar mevcuttur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Biyolojik s\u0131n\u0131rlar<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Hayvanlar bir\u00e7ok \u00f6\u011frenim ve bili\u015fsel g\u00f6revlerde, evrimsel tarihlerini ve do\u011fal ortamlar\u0131ndaki i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131tan \u015fekillerde geni\u015f farkl\u0131l\u0131klara sahiptir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, k\u00f6pekler ve s\u0131\u00e7anlar, \u015foku \u00f6nceleyen bir ses duyduklar\u0131nda, yerden gelecek bir elektrik \u015fokundan ka\u00e7\u0131narak deney odas\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015fka bir k\u0131sm\u0131na gitmeyi kolayca \u00f6\u011frenirler; bu, tehlikeli bir duruma uygun bir yan\u0131tt\u0131r. Ancak kirpiler bu ka\u00e7\u0131nma davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenmeyi ba\u015faramazlar. Bu, kirpilerin \u00f6\u011frenmedeki kabiliyetsizliklerine i\u015faret ediyormu\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnebilir, ancak bir kirpinin tehdit kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131ndaki i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel yan\u0131t\u0131 top gibi yuvarlanmakt\u0131r. Bu yan\u0131t ise bahsi ge\u00e7en durumdaki muhtemel ka\u00e7\u0131\u015f davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcne ge\u00e7mektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0130\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel s\u00fcr\u00fcklenme, bili\u015fsel ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131n yorumlan\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 etkileyebilen bir ba\u015fka etkendir. Bu etken, bir hayvan\u0131n \u00f6\u011frenilmi\u015f yan\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcne ge\u00e7ebilen, i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131na d\u00f6nme e\u011filimidir. Konsept, Keller ve Marian Breland\u2019\u0131n bir rakuna kutu i\u00e7ine madeni para koymay\u0131 \u00f6\u011fretmesinden k\u00f6ken alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Rakun, yemek ararken yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi pen\u00e7elerini paraya s\u00fcrtme davran\u0131\u015f\u0131na geri d\u00f6nm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayvanlar\u0131n uyaranlar\u0131 i\u015fleme ve yan\u0131tlama kabiliyetleri beyin boyutlar\u0131yla korrelasyon i\u00e7indedir. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck beyinli hayvanlar, b\u00fcy\u00fck beyinli hayvanlara nazaran \u00f6\u011frenmeye daha az dayal\u0131 basit davran\u0131\u015flar g\u00f6stermeye meyillidirler. Omurgal\u0131lar, bilhassa memeliler, b\u00fcy\u00fck beyinlere ve tecr\u00fcbeyle de\u011fi\u015fen karma\u015f\u0131k davran\u0131\u015flara sahiptirler. Ensefalizasyon katsay\u0131s\u0131 denen bir form\u00fcl, beyin ve v\u00fccut boyutu aras\u0131nda bir ili\u015fki bulundu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir. Bu katsay\u0131 H. J. Jerison taraf\u0131ndan 1960\u2019lar\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda ortaya konmu\u015ftur. Ensefalizasyon katsay\u0131s\u0131 bir e\u011fri \u015feklindeyken, e\u011frinin \u00fcst\u00fcnde kalan bir hayvan kendi boyutundaki ortalama bir hayvandan daha fazla bili\u015fsel kabiliyet g\u00f6stermektedir; ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde e\u011frinin alt\u0131ndaki bir hayvan\u0131n da bu kabiliyetinin daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck olmas\u0131 beklenir. \u00c7e\u015fitli form\u00fcller ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015fse de, Ew(beyin) = 0.12w(v\u00fccut)2\/3<\/strong> form\u00fcl\u00fcn\u00fcn memeli \u00f6rneklerine uydu\u011fu bulunmu\u015ftur. Form\u00fcl en iyi ihtimalle fikir verici olarak ele al\u0131nmal\u0131, memeli olmayanlara yaln\u0131zca ciddi dikkatle uygulanmal\u0131d\u0131r. Baz\u0131 di\u011fer omurgal\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131nda \u00fcs olarak 2\/3 yerine \u00be kullan\u0131lmaktad\u0131r ve pek \u00e7ok omurgas\u0131z grubunda form\u00fcl anlaml\u0131 sonu\u00e7lar vermeyebilmektedir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hayvan bili\u015finin aleyhindeki deneysel kan\u0131tlar<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

\u00c7ok say\u0131da deney, baz\u0131 hayvan t\u00fcrlerinin zeki, i\u00e7g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fc ya da bir zihin teorisini haiz oldu\u011fu inanc\u0131yla hemen ba\u011fda\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lamaz.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Jean-Henri Fabre (1823\u20131915), ilerideki t\u00fcm bu t\u00fcr deneylere y\u00f6n verir nitelikte, b\u00f6ceklerin \u201cne yapt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 anlamadan kendilerini zorlayan i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fclerine itaat ettiklerini\u201d savunmu\u015ftur. \u00d6rne\u011fin, fel\u00e7li av\u0131n\u0131 anteni yerine baca\u011f\u0131ndan tutabilece\u011fini anlamak bir kum yabanar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n idrak\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ok \u00f6tesindedir. Ona g\u00f6re \u201car\u0131n\u0131n hareketleri, her hareketin bir sonrakini tetikledi\u011fi, \u00f6nceki susmadan sonrakinin ba\u015flamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fczenli bir yank\u0131lar dizisi gibidir.\u201d Fabre\u2019nin say\u0131s\u0131z deneyi onu, bilim insanlar\u0131n\u0131n hayvanlar\u0131 nesnel \u015fekilde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmak yerine \u201cy\u00fcceltmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131\u201d sonucuna ula\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

C. Lloyd Morgan\u2019\u0131n (1852\u20131936) g\u00f6zlemleri ona hayvanlardaki prima facie zeki davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n s\u0131kl\u0131kla ya i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcler ya da deneme yan\u0131lmayla sonu\u00e7land\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6zlemlemi\u015ftir. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Morgan\u2019\u0131n k\u00f6pe\u011finin kafas\u0131n\u0131n arkas\u0131yla kap\u0131 s\u00fcrg\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc kald\u0131r\u0131p bah\u00e7e kap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7arak ka\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 izleyen \u00e7o\u011fu ziyaret\u00e7i, k\u00f6pe\u011fin davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme s\u00fcreci i\u00e7erdi\u011fine kanidir. Oysa Morgan, k\u00f6pe\u011fin \u00f6nceki, rastgele ve ama\u00e7s\u0131z hareketlerini dikkatle g\u00f6zlemlemi\u015f, bu s\u00fcrecin \u201cmetodolojik planlama\u201d de\u011fil \u201cmutlu bir etkiye ula\u015f\u0131lana kadar s\u00fcren deneme ve yan\u0131lmalar\u201d i\u00e7erdi\u011fini savunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Thorndike, a\u00e7 kedi ve k\u00f6pekleri, \u201cbir kordonun d\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc \u00e7ekmek gibi basit bir hareketle \u00e7\u0131kabilecekleri\u201d kapal\u0131 yerlere koydu. Hayvanlar\u0131n davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 onda \u201cmant\u0131\u011f\u0131n g\u00fcc\u00fcne sahip olmad\u0131klar\u0131\u201d fikrini olu\u015fturdu. Thorndike, hayvan davran\u0131\u015f\u0131 hakk\u0131ndaki kitaplar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funun \u201cbize psikoloji de\u011fil, daha ziyade hayvan methiyesi verdi\u011fini\u201d yazd\u0131.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Her ne kadar K\u00f6hler\u2019in deneyleri s\u0131k s\u0131k hayvan bili\u015f hipotezine destek olarak at\u0131flansa da, kitab\u0131 aksi \u00f6rneklerle doludur. \u00d6rne\u011fin, \u015fempanzeleri yaln\u0131zca bir kutuyu uzakla\u015ft\u0131rarak muz alabilecekleri bir ortama koydu. K\u00f6hler, \u015fempanzenin \u201cb\u00f6yle sorunlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zmekte \u00f6zellikle sorun ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131; s\u0131kl\u0131kla ortadan \u00e7ok rahat bir \u015fekilde kald\u0131rabilece\u011fi engeli uzakla\u015ft\u0131rmaktansa, en garip ve en uzak aletleri durumunda kullanmak istedi\u011fini ve en al\u0131\u015f\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f y\u00f6ntemleri se\u00e7ti\u011fini\u201d g\u00f6zlemledi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Louisiana \u00dcniveristesi\u2019nden Daniel J Povinelli ve Timothy Eddy, \u015fempanzelerin iki yemek sa\u011flay\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 aras\u0131ndan se\u00e7im yapma \u015fanslar\u0131 oldu\u011funda, \u015fempanzelerin yemek isteme hareketini hem bu hareketi g\u00f6rebilen hem de g\u00f6remeyen insanlara yapt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermi\u015f, b\u00f6ylece \u015fempanzelerin insanlar\u0131n g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc anlamad\u0131klar\u0131 ihtimalini g\u00fc\u00e7lendirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

T\u00fcrlere g\u00f6re bili\u015fsel yetiler<\/strong><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Geleneksel olarak yayg\u0131n olan, scala naturae<\/em>\u2019d\u0131r, yani hayvanlar\u0131n daha y\u00fcksek kademelere yerle\u015fti\u011fi, insanlar\u0131n karakteristik olarak en \u00fcstte bulundu\u011fu bir do\u011fa merdiveni. Ancak b\u00f6yle bir hiyerar\u015fi kullan\u0131m\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcnde baz\u0131 anla\u015fmazl\u0131klar bulunmaktad\u0131r; baz\u0131 ele\u015ftimenler spesifik bili\u015fsel kapasitelerin farkl\u0131 ekolojik ni\u015flere g\u00f6re adaptasyonlar oldu\u011funu anlaman\u0131n gerekli olabilece\u011fini s\u00f6ylemektedir (Shettleworth, 1998, Reznikova, 2007).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Adil olsun ya da olmas\u0131n, hayvanlar\u0131n bili\u015fsel g\u00f6revlerdeki performans\u0131 s\u0131kl\u0131kla insanlar\u0131nkiyle k\u0131yaslanmaktad\u0131r. \u015ea\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 olmayan bir \u015fekilde, en yak\u0131n biyolojik akrabalar\u0131m\u0131z olan b\u00fcy\u00fck kuyruksuz maymunlar, \u00e7o\u011funlukla insanlar gibi bir performans g\u00f6stermeye meyyaldir. Ku\u015flar aras\u0131nda tipik olarak kargagiller ve papa\u011fanlar\u0131n insan benzeri g\u00f6revlerde iyi performans g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi bulunmu\u015ftur. Baz\u0131 ahtopotlar\u0131n da alet kullan\u0131m\u0131 gibi y\u00fcksek seviye baz\u0131 yetenekler sergiledikleri g\u00f6sterilmi\u015ftir; ancak kafadanbacakl\u0131 zekas\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcne ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar hala s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kaynak\u00e7a<\/h1>\n\n\n\n
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